CEDH · CASELAW;JUDGMENTS;CHAMBER;ENG — 23 juillet 1968

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margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:-17pt } .sFDE7661F { margin-top:12pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:14.4pt } .s40F41F73 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:right } .s9FF10068 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:12pt } .s5E1364CA { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-align:center; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:14pt } .s2D726B78 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-align:center; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .sCA1147F8 { margin-top:12pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-align:center; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid }       COURT (PLENARY)             CASE "RELATING TO CERTAIN ASPECTS OF THE LAWS ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES IN EDUCATION IN BELGIUM"   v. BELGIUM (MERITS)   (Application n o 1474/62; 1677/62; 1691/62; 1769/63; 1994/63; 2126/64)                     JUDGMENT       STRASBOURG   23 July 1968       In the case "relating to certain aspects of the laws on the use of languages in education in Belgium", The European Court of Human Rights, taking its decision in plenary session in accordance with Rule 48 of the Rules of Court, and composed of the following Judges:   Mr.   R. CASSIN , President , and   MM. A. HOLMBÄCK ,   A. VERDROSS ,   G. MARIDAKIS ,   E. RODENBOURG ,   A. ROSS ,   T. WOLD ,   G. BALLADORE PALLIERI ,   H. MOSLER ,   M. ZEKIA ,   A. FAVRE ,   J. CREMONA ,   Sir   HUMPHREY WALDOCK ,   G. WIARDA ,   Mr.   A. MAST , Judge ad hoc , and also   Mr.   H. GOLSONG , Registrar , and   Mr.   M.-A. EISSEN , Deputy Registrar Decides as follows concerning the merits of the case: PROCEDURE 1. By a request dated 25th June 1965, the European Commission of Human Rights (hereinafter referred to as "the Commission") brought before the Court a case relating to certain aspects of the laws on the use of languages in education in Belgium. The origins of this case lie in six applications against the Kingdom of Belgium lodged with the Commission under Article 25 (art. 25) of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (hereinafter referred to as "the Convention"). These applications, the first of which was deposited on 16th June 1962 and the last on 28th January 1964 were submitted by inhabitants of Alsemberg and Beersel, Kraainem, Antwerp and environs, Ghent and environs, Louvain and environs and Vilvorde. 2. The Belgian Government, Party, raised a preliminary objection which was rejected by the Court in a judgment on 9th February 1967. That judgment includes a summary of proceedings prior to its delivery. 3. On 9th February 1967, the President of the Court ascertained the views of the Agent for the Belgian Government, and of the Delegates of the Commission, on the procedure to be followed concerning the merits of the case. By an Order of the same date he decided, in pursuance of Rules 35 (1) and 48 (3) of the Rules of Court: - that the Belgian Government would have until 1st May 1967 to file a first memorial; - that the Commission would be entitled to file a memorial in reply within the two months following the receipt of the memorial of the Government; - that the Belgian Government would have, in order to file a second and last memorial, until 15th September 1967. Both time-limits set for the Belgian Government were extended to, respectively, 10th May 1967 (Order of 26th April) and 2nd October 1967 (Order of 2nd September). 4. The Belgian Government's first memorial was received by the Registry of the Court on 9th May 1967, the Commission's memorial on 12th July 1967 and the Government's second memorial on 2nd October 1967. 5. On 6th June 1967, the Secretary of the Commission informed the Registrar that the Commission had instructed its President, Mr. M. Sørensen, to represent it as principal Delegate in subsequent proceedings before the Court, Mr. S. Petrén having been relieved of this function at his own request. 6. By a letter of 22nd November 1967, the Belgian Government informed the President of the Court that it had appointed Mr. A. de Granges de Surgères as its Agent to replace Mr. A. Gomrée, deceased. 7. In accordance with an Order made by the President of the Court on 7th October 1967, a public hearing was opened in Strasbourg on 25th November 1976 in the Human Rights Building; the hearing continued on 27th, 29th and 30th November. There appeared before the Court: - for the Commission:   Mr M. Sørensen ,   Principal Delegate , assisted by:   Mr. G. Janssen-Pevtschin and Mr. F. Welter ,        Delegates ; -           for the Belgian Government:   Mr. A. de Granges de Surgères , Directeur général       de l'administration de la Législation at the Belgian Ministry       of Justice,   Agent , assisted by:   Me. A. Bayart , Barrister at       the Belgian Court of Cassation,     Counsel , and   Mr. P. Guggenheim , Honorary Professor       at the University of Geneva, and Professor at the         University Institute of Advanced International Studies,       Geneva,   Counsel ;   Mr. A. Vander Stichele , Assistant to       the Auditeur général of the Belgian Conseil d'État, Expert ; The Court heard statements and submissions: - for the Commission by MM. F. Welter and M. Sørensen ; - for the Belgian Government by Me. A. Bayart , Mr. P. Guggenheim and Mr. A. de Granges de Surgères . The Court also put a number of questions to those appearing before it, to which the latter replied verbally on 29th and 30th November. On 30th November, the President declared the hearing closed. 8. The Court met in private on 30th November and 1st December 1967. On 1st December, it instructed the Registrar - who carried out the order on 5th December - to ask the Belgian Government and Commission for additional information concerning, on the one hand, the situation with regard to unsubsidised establishments in the Dutch-language area which provide French-language education. The replies from both the Belgian Government and the Commission reached the Registrar on 10th January 1968. The Government made certain additions to its reply in March 1968. 9. After further deliberation the Court pronounced the present judgment. THE FACTS 1. The object of the Commission's request is to submit the case to the Court, so that the Court may decide whether or not certain provisions of the Belgian linguistic legislation relating to education are in conformity with the requirements of Articles 8 and 14 (art. 8, art. 14) of the Convention and Article 2 of the Protocol of 20th March 1952 (hereinafter referred to as "the Protocol") (P1-2). 2. The Applicants, who are parents of families of Belgian nationality, applied to the Commission both on their own behalf and on behalf of their children under age, of whom there are more than 800. Pointing out that they are French-speaking or that they express themselves most frequently in French, they want their children to be educated in that language. Alsemberg, Beersel, Antwerp, Ghent, Louvain and Vilvorde, where the signatories of five of the six applications (Nos. 1474/62, 1691/62, 1769/63, 1994/63 and 2126/64) live, belong to the region considered by law as Dutch-speaking, whereas Kraainem (Application No. 1677/62) has since 1963 formed part of a separate administrative district with a "special status". In all of these districts ("communes"), part of the population - in some cases a large part - is French-speaking. 3. Though the six applications differ on a number of points, they are similar in many respects. For the time being it is sufficient to note that in substance they complain that the Belgian State: - does not provide any French-language education in the municipalities where the Applicants live or, in the case of Kraainem, that the provision made for such education is, in their opinion, inadequate; - withholds grants from any institutions in the said municipalities which may fail to comply with the linguistic provisions of the legislation for schools; - refuses to homologate leaving certificates issued by such institutions; - does not allow the Applicants' children to attend the French classes which exist in certain places; - thereby obliges the Applicants either to enrol their children in local schools, a solution which they consider contrary to their aspirations, or to send them to school in the "Greater Brussels district", where the language of instruction is Dutch or French according to the child's mother-tongue or usual language or in the "French-speaking region" (Walloon area). Such "scholastic emigration" is said to entail serious risks and hardships. 4. The Applications in so far as they have been declared admissible by the Commission, allege that Articles 8 and 14 (art. 8, art. 14) of the Convention and Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2) have been violated. The violation is said to be a result of the Applicants and their children being subjected to various provisions of the Act of 14th July 1932 "on language regulations in primary and intermediate education", the Act of 15th July 1932 "on the conferring of academic degrees", the Acts of 27th July 1955 and 29th May 1959, the Act of 30th July 1963 "relating to the use of languages in education" and the Act of 2nd August 1963 "on the use of languages in administrative matters", etc. The Acts of 14th and 15th July 1932 were repealed by the Act of 30th July 1963, but were still in force when the Alsemberg, Beersel, Kraainem, Antwerp and Ghent Applicants brought their cases before the Commission, and those Applicants still challenge these Acts while at the same time attacking the present legislation. 5. Summarising the opinion expressed in its Report of 24th June 1965 (hereinafter referred to as "the Report"), the Commission recalled in paragraph 7 of its memorial of 17th December 1965 that it took the view: "- by 9 votes to 3, that the legislation complained of was not incompatible with the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2), considered in isolation; - unanimously, that the legislation was not incompatible with the second sentence of the said Article (P1-2), considered in isolation or in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention; - by 10 votes to 2, that the legislation was not incompatible, in the case of the Applicants, with Article 8 (art. 8) of the Convention, considered in isolation or in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+8); - by 9 votes to 3, that the general system of education in the areas which are unilingual by law was not incompatible with the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol, considered in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention; - by 11 votes to 1, that the same was true of the "special status" conferred by Section 7 of the Act of 2nd August 1963 on six bilingual communes, of which Kraainem is one, on the periphery of Brussels; - by 7 votes to 5, that the Acts of 1963 were incompatible with the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention, in so far as they result in the total withdrawal of subsidies from provincial, commune and private schools providing, in the form of non-subsidised classes and in addition to instruction given in the language prescribed by the language legislation, complete or partial education in another language; - unanimously, that the conditions on which children whose parents live outside the Greater Brussels district may be enrolled in schools in that district (Section 17 of the Act of 30th July 1963) were not, in the case of the Applicants, incompatible with the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention; - that the Acts of 1963 were incompatible with the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention, in so far as they prevent certain children, solely on the basis of their parents' place of residence, from attending French-language schools at Louvain (8 votes to 4) and in the above-mentioned six communes on the periphery of Brussels (7 votes to 5); - by 8 votes to 4, that the legislation complained of was also incompatible with the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention, in so far as it has resulted, since 1932, in a refusal to homologate certificates relating to secondary schooling not in accordance with the language requirements." 6. In the course of the written proceedings the following submissions were made on the merits of the case: - by the Belgian Government in its memorial of 9th May 1967: "The Belgian Government submits the following conclusions: (1) The Belgian legislation attacked in the Applications is incompatible neither with Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2) nor with Article 8 (art. 8) of the Convention if those provisions are considered in isolation. (2) Nor is it contrary to the first and second sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol or Article 8 of the Convention even if read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2, art. 14+8) of the Convention. (3) Neither the 1963 Acts nor those of 1932 are incompatible with Article 2, first sentence, of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention, in so far as they forbid the establishment or subsidising by the State of any schools which do not comply with the language legislation. (4) The 1963 Acts are not contrary to Article 2, first sentence, of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention, in so far as they result in the total withdrawal of subsidies from schools that, while they have sections in which tuition is given in the regional language, also provide complete or partial education in another language. (5) The system introduced by the Act of 2nd August 1963 in the communes on the periphery of Brussels, including Kraainem, is not incompatible with Article 2, first sentence, of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention. (6) The residence conditions laid down in the 1963 Acts for admission to the French-language schools at Louvain and in the communes on the periphery of Brussels, including Kraainem, are compatible with Article 2, first sentence, of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention. (7) The provisions of the 1932 and 1963 Acts are compatible with Article 2, first sentence, of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention, in so far as they result in the refusal of homologation of secondary school leaving certificates for the sole reason that the schooling covered by them has not been in accordance with the requirements of the language legislation. The Belgian Government reserves the right to add to or modify these conclusions in the course of the proceedings". - by the Commission in its memorial of 12th July 1967 and, in almost identical terms, in that of 17th December 1965, prior to the judgment of 9th February 1967: "As it recalled in its memorial of 17th December 1965, the Commission acts in the general interest and not, strictly speaking, as plaintiff vis-à-vis the High Contracting Party against which the Applications submitted to it for appraisal are directed. It therefore once more formulates its conclusions interrogatively and invites the Court to decide whether or not the legislation of which the Applicants complain satisfies the requirements of: (a) the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2), considered in isolation; (b) the second sentence of that Article (P1-2), considered in isolation; (c) Article 8 (art. 8) of the Convention, considered in isolation; (d) the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention; (e) the second sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention; (f) Article 8 of the Convention, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+8). In particular the Commission requests the Court to decide whether or not, in the case of the Applicants, there is violation of all or some of the above-mentioned articles, inter alia: (a) in so far as the Acts of 1932 prevented, and those of 1963 prevent: - the establishment, or - the subsidisation by the State, of schools not in conformity with the general linguistic requirements; (b) in so far as the Acts of 1963 result in the complete withdrawal of subsidies from provincial, commune or private schools providing, in the form of non-subsidised classes and in addition to the instruction given in the language prescribed by the linguistic Acts, full or partial instruction in another language; (c) with regard to the special status conferred by Section 7, third paragraph, of the Act of 2nd August 1963 on six communes, of which Kraainem is one, on the periphery of Brussels; (d) with regard to the conditions on which children whose parents reside outside the Greater Brussels district may be enrolled in the schools of that district (Section 17 of the Act of 30th July 1963); (e) in so far as Section 7, last paragraph, of the Act of 30th July 1963 and Section 7, third paragraph, of the Act of 2nd August 1963 prevent certain children, solely on the basis of their parents' place of residence, from attending French-language schools at Louvain and in the six communes mentioned under (c) above; (f) in so far as the Acts of 1932 resulted, and those of 1963 result, in absolute refusal to homologate certificates relating to secondary schooling not in conformity with the language requirements in education. For the reasons stated at the end of its report (...), the Commission still refrains for the time being from putting forward conclusions on the claims for damages submitted by the Applicants of Alsemberg and Beersel, Kraainem and Louvain." - by the Belgian Government in its memorial of 2nd October 1967: "Subsidiary, in case the Court should feel obliged to adopt the Commission's viewpoint, the Belgian State points out the legitimate grounds that justify the legislation attacked. The Belgian Government maintains however as its main argument the conclusions set down in its first memorial on the merits and reserves its final conclusions. The Government wishes to point out: - first of all, that the distinctions of which the Applicants complain do not affect the rights laid down in Article 8 (art. 8) of the Convention, since the rights of parents and children with regard to education are defined not in that Article (art. 8) but in Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2); - that these distinctions do not affect the negative right and the freedom laid down in Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2) but relate to positive benefits and favours, which the State may, of course, grant in order to facilitate the exercise of that right and freedom but concerning which the High Contracting Parties have expressly declared that they did not intend to enter into any obligation; - that the distinctions in question do not interfere with any desire of the Applicants simply to have their children educated but concern their wish to have them educated in accordance with their linguistic preferences, and that any such preferences held in educational matters were deliberately not included by the High Contracting Parties in the enumeration of rights and freedoms safeguarded by the Convention; - that the rule of non-discrimination in Article 14 (art. 14) of the Convention cannot apply to the distinctions of which the Applicants complain, since it relates only to rights and freedoms laid down in the Convention; - that the Applicants' complaints are unfounded." 7. The following submissions were made during the oral proceedings: - by the Commission, on 25th November 1967: "The Commission maintains the submissions it made to the Court at the end of its memorial on the merits of the case, while reserving the right to modify them or add to them in the light of subsequent proceedings." - by the Belgian Government, on 27th November 1967: "I have the honour to read to the Court the submissions made by the Belgian Government at the present stage of proceedings, while reserving the right to make any necessary additions or amendments during subsequent proceedings. Principal submissions May it please the Court, To find that the measures of which the Applicants complain, whether the provisions invoked by the Applicants concerning them are considered in isolation or in conjunction, do not interfere with the rights or freedoms set forth in the European Convention on Human Rights and Protocol and, replying in greater detail to the questions submitted by the Commission: To rule that Belgian legislation is not incompatible with: (a) the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2), considered in isolation; (b) the second sentence of that Article (P1-2), considered in isolation; (c) Article 8 (art. 8) of the Convention, considered in isolation; (d) the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention; (e) the second sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention; (f) Article 8 of the Convention, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+8). In particular the Belgian Government requests the Court to find that in the case of the Applicants none of those Articles, whether considered in conjunction or in isolation, has been violated, inter alia: (a) in so far as the Acts of 1932 prevented, and those of 1963 prevent: the establishment, or the subsidisation by the State, of schools not in conformity with the general linguistic requirements; (b) in so far as the Acts of 1963 result in the total withdrawal of subsidies from provincial, commune or private schools providing, in the form of non-subsidised classes and in addition to the instruction given in the language prescribed by the linguistic Acts, full or partial instruction in another language; (c) with regard to the special status conferred by Section 7 (1) and (3) of the Act of 2nd August 1963 on six communes, of which Kraainem is one, on the periphery of Brussels; (d) with regard to the conditions on which children whose parents reside outside the Greater Brussels district may be enrolled in the schools of that district (Section 17 of the Act of 30th July 1963); (e) in so far as the last paragraph of Section 7 of the Act of 30th July 1963 and Section 7 (1) and (3) of the Act of 2nd August 1963 prevent certain children, solely on the basis of their parents' place of residence, from attending French-language schools at Louvain and in the six communes mentioned under (c) above; (f) in so far as the Acts of 1932 resulted, and those of 1963 result, in refusal to homologate certificates relating to secondary schooling not in conformity with the language requirements in education. Auxiliary submission If the Court accepts the Commission's opinion that the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol, read in conjunction with Article 14 (art. 14+P1-2) of the Convention, lays down an obligation not to discriminate, then May it please the Court: To rule that the Belgian legislation complained of is in accordance with that requirement as it provides for no unlawful or arbitrary discrimination against the Applicants within the meaning of Article 14 (art. 14) of the Convention: May it please the Court: To rule that the Applicants' complaints are without foundation." - by the Commission, on 29th November 1967: "It only remains for me to confirm the submissions made by the Commission in its memorial of 11th July 1967." - by the Belgian Government on 30th November 1967: "The submissions we had the honour to make to the Court (on 27th November 1967) may be considered as final ones." THE LAWS ON THE USE OF LANGUAGES IN EDUCATION IN BELGIUM 8. The laws on the use of languages in education in Belgium have evolved considerably since the foundation of the Kingdom (1830), within the wider framework of the evolution of the "Belgian linguistic problem" on which the Commission and the Belgian Government have furnished detailed explanations to the Court (cf. in particular, paragraph 344 of the Report, and the Note of the hearing of the morning of 27th November 1967). Before examining and deciding the six questions enumerated in the respective submissions of those appearing before it, the Court believes that it is useful to give a brief outline of the principal laws on language in education which have been passed in Belgium between 1914 and the present day. 9. Article 17 of the Belgian Constitution of 7th February 1831 provides: "Education shall be unrestricted; all measures of restriction are prohibited; crimes may be punished only in accordance with the law. Public education provided at the expense of the State shall also be regulated by law." Moreover, Article 23 provides: "The use of the languages spoken in Belgium is optional. This matter may be regulated only by law and only as regards the acts of the public authority and the judicial matters." These two Articles have never been amended. 10. The earliest linguistic laws concerned not education but criminal procedure (Acts of 1870 and 1908) as well as the vote and the promulgation of laws (Act of 1898). Until 1932 parents in Belgium enjoyed a fairly wide freedom with regard to the language of education. An Act of 19th May 1914 made primary education compulsory. According to Section 15, a child's maternal or usual language, determined on the declaration made by the head of the family, was the language of instruction in each grade throughout the country. If the head of the school considered that the child had not the ability to profit from the instruction in the language designated, the head of the family might appeal to the inspectorate. Thanks to fairly broad interpretation of the text, some Dutch-speaking parents had their children educated in French. In some parts of Flanders there were, in addition to Dutch-language primary schools, State and private French-language primary schools, whilst secondary education was provided sometimes in French, sometimes half in French and half in Dutch (paragraphs 138 and 345 of the Report). 11. A fundamental change was made to this system by the Act of 14th July 1932 "on language regulations in primary and intermediate education". The Bill submitted by the then Government introduced the concept of territoriality, but left families of the minority in each region with a certain freedom of choice. The explanatory memorandum stressed that the maternal language should merit the same respect as religious or philosophical convictions. During the parliamentary debate, many members of the House of Representatives and Senators, and in particular Walloon representatives, showed a marked preference for a more "territorial" solution. The Bill was amended to that effect and approved by the House of Representatives by 81 votes to 12 with 63 abstentions, and by the Senate by 82 votes to 25 with 13 abstentions. The territorial principle was likewise established in the Act of 28th June 1932 "on the use of languages in administrative matters" and in the Act of 15th June 1932 "on the use of languages in judicial matters". 12. The Act of 14th July 1932 was applicable to "nursery schools and municipal adopted or adoptable primary schools", to "establishments governed by the organic law on secondary education" (upper and lower secondary schools) and to "primary classes (preparatory sections) attached to secondary schools" (Sections 1, 8, 14 and 18). This law established a distinction between the regions considered to be unilingual and the areas recognised as bilingual. In the former, "the Flemish area", "the Walloon area" and "the German-speaking communes", the language of education was in principle that of the region (Sections 1, 8 and 14), while study of a second language (whether national or not) was compulsory only in secondary classes (Sections 3, 10, 11 and 16). This rule was, however, mitigated to a certain extent. Sections 2, 4, 15 and 17 provided that children whose maternal or usual language was not that of the region were entitled to receive their primary education in their own language. But the competent authorities remained the judges of the "reality of this need" and the "expediency of meeting it" by setting up "transmutation" classes; pupils enrolled in these classes were obliged to learn the language of the region from the second grade of primary schooling (third year) so that they would be able to derive profit, either from the fourth primary grade, or from technical or secondary education given in that language. Section 9 also provided that the "existing special language classes" in upper and lower secondary schools should be maintained for as long as they were attended by a sufficient number of pupils of three strictly defined categories. In the Brussels urban area and bilingual communes on the linguistic boundary, the language of instruction was to be the child's maternal or usual language; teaching of the second national language was to be compulsory (Sections 5, 6, 12, 13, 18, 19 and 22). The Act of 28th June 1932 on the use of languages in administrative matters, referred to in Section 21 of the Act of 14th July 1932, defined the Brussels urban area in Section 2 paragraph 5. Each head of family was required to make a declaration stating his children's maternal or usual language in so far as that determined which system was applicable, but the correctness of the declaration might be subject to verification (Sections 7 and 20 of the Act of 14th July 1932). The Act of 14th July 1932 (Section 28), supplemented by Section 13 of an Act of 27th July 1955 and by Section 24 of an Act of 29th May 1959 ("schooling agreement"), introduced a penalty for non-observance of the Act: the refusal or withdrawal, as the case may be, of the school subsidies. Another penalty was introduced by the Act of 15th July 1932 on the conferring of academic degrees (cf. infra). The State refused to "homologate" leaving certificates issued by establishments which did not fully conform to the language laws on education. Pupils whose leaving certificates were not admissible for homologation could still obtain a legally recognised degree by taking an examination before the "Central Board". 13. Section 22 of the Act of 14th July 1932 laid down that "in every commune where the decennial census" establishes that "more than 20 % of the population habitually speaks a language other than that of the region, the teaching of this second language" may "begin in the second grade", "if the communes or the managers of adopted or adoptable schools" so "decide". For its part, the Act of 28th June 1932 on the use of languages in administrative matters provided in Section 3 (1) that: "Subject to the provisions of Section 2 with regard to the communes of the Brussels area, communes in which the last decennial census showed a majority of the inhabitants usually speaking a language different from that of the language group to which they are attached by virtue of Section 1 shall adopt the language of the said majority in their internal services and correspondence." After 1846, a general census of the population took place periodically in Belgium (Royal Decree of 30th June 1846, Act of 2nd June 1856, Royal Decree of 5th July 1866, Act of 25th May 1880); under a Ministerial Decree of 18th November 1880 its purpose was to ascertain not only the number, sex and age of the inhabitants of the Kingdom, but also their language. The last language census was in 1947. Although it revealed a certain percentage of French-speaking persons in the Flemish provinces (paragraph 349 of the Report), it also showed that the number of Flemish-speaking Belgians was increasing but that a large number of French-speaking Belgians had settled in the Flemish area, especially around Brussels. This dual tendency which seems to have become more marked since then provoked a serious reaction; the Walloons charged the Flemings with "demographic imperialism", and the Flemings charged the Walloons with "geographical imperialism" (Report of the hearing held on the morning of 27th November 1967). The results of the language census of 1947 were not published until 1954. An Act of 2nd July 1954 attenuated the consequences which the census results should have entailed by virtue of the Acts of 28th June and 14th July 1932. A new population census was held at the end of 1961, but it included no questions concerning the use of languages (Section 3 of the Act of 24th July 1961 and the Royal Decree of 3rd November 1961). More recently an Act of 8th November 1962 changed the boundaries of provinces, districts and communes, and amended certain provisions of the Acts of 28th June and 14th July 1932. It had the effect of fixing the linguistic boundary permanently: thus, no matter what the extent of any changes that may occur in the language spoken by the population, such changes will not affect in any way the language regulations in the various communes. 14. The Acts of 14th and 15th July 1932 were repealed by that of 30th July 1963 "relating to the use of languages in education". For their part the Acts of 28th June 1932 on the use of languages in administrative matters and of 15th June 1935 on the use of languages in judicial matters have been replaced, the first by an Act of 2nd August 1963, the second by an Act of 9th August 1963. The Act of 30th July 1963 was adopted by a large majority in both the House of Representatives (157 votes to 33) and the Senate (120 votes to 17 with 7 abstentions). Although it lays down the same principles as the Act of 14th July 1932, it differs from the former on a number of points, some of which are important. The new Act applies (Section 1) to official teaching establishments and independent establishments subsidised or recognised by the State and covers all levels of education with the exception of universities, which moreover are not involved in the present case. With regard to the status of six communes on the periphery of Brussels, it refers to Section 7 of the Act of 2nd August 1963 on the use of languages for administrative matters. Section 2 also refers to that Act for the definition of linguistic regions. Section 3 completes the list of these regions specifying that the 25 communes on the linguistic boundary, the communes in the German-speaking area, the "Malmédy communes" and nine communes in Eastern Belgium have been assigned "a special system to protect their minorities". The boundaries of these areas are fixed permanently. Section 4 of the Act of 30th July 1963 is concerned with the unilingual regions. It lays down that the language of education shall be Dutch in the Dutch-speaking region, French in the French-speaking region and German in the German-speaking region, but makes provision for mitigation of this principle in the latter case (Section 8). In these regions, the study of the second language is optional at the primary level (Section 9); the Act of 30 th July 1963 provides no express regulations on this matter for secondary schools (paragraphs 176, 211 and 367 (d) of the Report). The 19 communes of the Greater Brussels district (Sections 5 and 21) are governed by bilingual arrangements based on the criterion of the child's maternal or usual language; study of the second national language is compulsory in the primary classes and optional at the secondary level (Sections 10 and 11). Six communes on the outskirts of Brussels, including Kraainem, "enjoy a special status" (Section 7 paragraph 3 of the Act of 2nd August 1963). The normal language there is Dutch. However, children may receive nursery and primary education - but not secondary education - in French if this is the child's maternal or usual language and provided the head of the family is resident in one of these communes. Such education must be organised by the commune if asked to do so by 16 heads of family residing in that commune. In the Dutch-language schools in the six communes in question, teaching of French is optional, whereas teaching of Dutch is compulsory in the French-language schools. Lastly, the Act of 30th July 1963 introduced several special systems. The Louvain system (cf. infra) is the only one of these which needs to be analysed here; as far as the others are concerned it is enough merely to refer to Sections 3, 6, 7, 10 and 20 of the Act and to the relevant passages of the Commission's Report (communes "assigned a special system to protect their minorities"; the children of military servicemen stationed at Ostend, Bourg-Léopold and Arlon; children who leave the commune where they were resident for reasons of health or such children whose parents have no permanent residence; European schools). Chapter V of the Act of 30th July 1963 institutes "linguistic control". In unilingual areas children are, without any control, admitted to schools which teach in the language of the region, but this does not apply when the child's maternal or usual language determines the linguistic system applicable (Greater Brussels, French classes at Louvain and the six communes on the outskirts of Brussels, etc). In the latter case a headmaster may only enrol a pupil under a specific system on production of one of the following documents: a certificate by the head of the child's last school that his previous schooling has been in the language of that system; a language declaration by the head of the family endorsed by the language inspectorate, provided that it does not challenge the correctness of the declaration; a decision by the language commission or language board mentioned in Section 18 (Section 17, paragraph 2; see also the 3rd, 4th and 5th paragraphs of the Royal Decree of 30th November 1966 establishing models for the linguistic certificate and declaration). Language inspection is conducted by two inspectors, one on each language list; in case of disagreement between them the case is submitted to a commission constituted by the King; the head of family may appeal against the decision of the inspectors or the commission to a board appointed by the King (Section 18, and Royal Decrees of 30th November 1966 on the status and functioning of the language inspectorate) without prejudice to a subsequent appeal to the Conseil d'État (paragraph 210 of the Report). For the Greater Brussels district and the six communes on the outskirts of Brussels the Act of 2nd August 1963 (Sections 6 and 7 paragraphs 1 and 5) instituted a supplementary control authority: a "Government commissioner who shall be the Vice-Governor of the province of Brabant". Penalties have been laid down for failure to comply with the provisions of the Act of 30th July 1963. Under paragraph 6 of Section 17 "any false or incorrect enrolment of a pupil by the head-master may entail disciplinary action" - in official schools – or in the case of private, provincial, or commune schools "withdrawal of subsidies for a period of not more than six months" in respect of each infringement. More generally, it appears from Section 1 of the Act that private establishments which do not observe the provisions with regard to the languages to be used in education may not receive State subsidies; besides, the Act of 30th July 1963 rescinds neither Section 13 of the Act of 27th July 1955 nor Section 24 of the Act of 29th May 1959. Moreover, the 1963 legislation results in the complete withdrawal of subsidies from provincial, commune or private schools providing, in the form of non-subsidised classes and in addition to the instruction given in the language prescribed by the linguistic Acts, full or partial instruction in another language (Sections 1 and 4 of the Act of 20th July 1963, ministerial circulars of 9th and 29th August 1963, etc.). A further penalty is imposed under Section 19 of the Act of 30th July 1963 which provides that "only school-leaving certificates that have been issued by the educational establishments referred to in Section 1 or in other independent educational establishments in accordance with the provisions of this Act may be subject to homologation". Under paragraph 2 an exception may be made to this principle but does not appear to be applicable to the present case. The 1963 legislation, like that of 1932, leaves intact the possibility of remedying the refusal of homologation by an examination taken before the Central Board. 15. Articles 17 and 23, cited above, of the Belgian Constitution, have not been revised and are therefore still in force. Consequently, children of the Dutch-language area, including Flemish-speaking children, may be taught in their area in French - or in any other language - by their parents, a private tutor or an unsubsidised private School. A head of family who takes advantage of this facility incurs no punishment and is complying with the obligations to have his children educated (see for example Section I of the consolidated Acts of 20th August 1957 on primary education) provided the education given meets academic and technical requirements laid down by law. The same applies, mutatis mutandis, throughout the Kingdom of Belgium. The 1932 and 1963 Acts have not changed the earlier situation in this respect. THE LAW Beyond the six specific questions enumerated in the respective submissions of the Commission and the Belgian Government, the present case raises problems of a more general character concerning the meaning and scope of Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2) and of Articles 8 and 14 (art. 8, art. 14) of the Convention. The Court will pronounce upon these problems before ruling upon the above-mentioned questions, as the reply to be given to the latter depends to a certain degree on the solution of the former. I. THE MEANING AND SCOPE OF ARTICLE 2 OF THE PROTOCOL (P1-2) AND OF ARTICLES 8 AND 14 (art. 8, art. 14) OF THE CONVENTION A. Summary of the arguments presented by the Applicants before or through the Commission and of those presented before the Court by the Belgian Government and by the Commission 1. The wording of the first sentence of Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2) reads, "No person shall be denied the right to education". Before the Commission, the Applicants maintained that Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2) gives rise to "obligations to take action". In this connection, they invoked the spirit and letter of the Convention as well as the reservations and declarations made by several signatory States. They also based their arguments on Articles 17 and 23 of the Belgian Constitution, cited above, and also on Article 6 which guarantees the equality of all Belgians in the eyes of the law. They furthermore emphasised that education in Belgium is both compulsory up to the age of fourteen (Act of 19th May 1914) and free at the nursery, primary and secondary stages in official and subsidised schools (Act of 29th May 1959). Therefore, a modern State like Belgium cannot claim "that it is not obliged to take measures to ensure the free exercise, in this field, of rights which are embodied in, inter alia, its Constitution and the Convention". Admittedly, Article 2 of the Protocol (P1-2) does not oblige the Contracting States to provide or finance education; nor does it prevent them issuing regulations governing admission to the educational facilities which they provide or subsidise, for such regulations can be "justified by perfectly valid reasons". The Applicants however expressed the opinion that once a State undertakes to provide or subsidise a particular type of education, it must "refrain from any discriminatory measure", as otherwise it violates Article 2 (P1-2). In their opinion this text must be interpreted "in good faith and in all fairness", and its Application may "vary from one State to another depending on the special circumstances peculiar to each State". In particular, the "cultural" right to education, guaranteed by the first sentence, means, on analysis, a "right to the performance of a service", a "right to have the State take action". No doubt Article 2 (P1-2) states this in a negative way but the abandonment of the positive formula which was originally contemplated, does not have the significance which is attributed to it by the respondent Government. "To make existing teaching available to all"