CEDH · CASELAW;JUDGMENTS;CHAMBER;ENG — 29 juin 2004

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text-indent:14.4pt } .sF7A4323 { margin-top:36pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:left } .s9D025815 { width:20.21pt; display:inline-block } .s4DF1C59 { width:214.81pt; display:inline-block } .s7602FED2 { width:18.21pt; display:inline-block } .s60570E66 { width:233.81pt; display:inline-block }     FOURTH SECTION     CASE OF LEYLA ŞAHİN v. TURKEY     (Application no. 44774/98)     JUDGMENT     STRASBOURG     29 June 2004     THIS CASE WAS REFERRED TO THE GRAND CHAMBER, WHICH DELIVERED JUDGMENT IN THE CASE ON 10/11/2005     This judgment will become final in the circumstances set out in Article 44 §   2 of the Convention. It may be subject to editorial revision. In the case of Leyla Şahin v. Turkey, The European Court of Human Rights (Fourth Section), sitting as a Chamber composed of:   Sir   N icolas Bratza , President ,   Mr   M. Pellonpää ,   Mr   A. Pastor Ridruejo ,   Mrs   E. Palm,   Mr   R. Türmen ,   Mr   M. Fischbach,   Mr   J. Casadevall , judges , and Mr M. O’Boyle , Section Registrar , Having deliberated in private on 2 July and 19 November 2002, 9   December 2003 and 8 June 2004, Delivers the following judgment, which was adopted on the last ‑ mentioned date: PROCEDURE 1.     The case originated in an application (no. 44774/98) against the Republic of Turkey lodged with the European Commission of Human Rights (“the Commission”) under former Article 25 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) by a Turkish national, Ms Leyla Şahin (“the applicant”), on 21   July 1998. 2.     The applicant alleged that a ban on wearing the Islamic headscarf in higher-education institutions violated her rights and freedoms under Articles   8, 9, 10 and 14 of the Convention, and Article 2 of Protocol No. 1. 3.     The application was transmitted to the Court on 1 November 1998, when Protocol No. 11 to the Convention came into force (Article 5 § 2 of Protocol No. 11). 4.     The application was allocated to the First Section of the Court (Rule   52 § 1 of the Rules of Court). Within that Section, the Chamber that would consider the case (Article 27 § 1 of the Convention) was constituted as provided in Rule 26 § 1 of the Rules of Court. 5.     On 1 November 2001 the Court changed the composition of its Sections (Rule 52 § 1). This case was assigned to the newly composed Fourth Section. 6.     By a decision of 2 July 2002 the Chamber declared the application admissible. 7.     The applicant and the Government each filed written observations on the merits (Rule 59 § 1). 8.     A hearing took place in public in the Human Rights Building, Strasbourg, on 19 November 2002 (Rule 59 § 3).   There appeared before the Court: –     for the Government Mr.   Ş. Alpaslan ,   Agent , Mr   S. Güran , Mr   B. Yildiz,   Counsel , Ms   D. Kilislioğlu , Ms   B. Özaydin, Ms   M. Gülşen ,   Advisers ; –     for the applicant Mr   S. Grosz ,   Counsel , Mr   H. Tuna , Mr   A. Selamet Mr   M. Emery Mr   M. Erbay Mr   M. Özkaya   Advisers , Ms   L. Şahın ,   Applicant .   The Court heard addresses by Mr Grosz, Mr Alpaslan and Mr Güran. 9.     Both the applicant (on 21 November 2002, 9 May, 4 July and 25   September 2003) and the Government (on 5 and 18 March, 7 and 13   November 2003) lodged written observations and additional evidence (Rule   59 §§ 1 and 4, and Rule 60). On 11 December 2003, without providing any explanation, the Government withdrew from the case file the observations and appendices they had lodged on 7 and 13 November 2003. THE FACTS I.     THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE CASE 10.     The applicant was born in 1973 and has lived in Vienna since 1999, when she left Istanbul to pursue her medical studies at the Faculty of Medicine at Vienna University. She comes from a traditional family of practising Muslims and considers it her religious duty to wear the Islamic headscarf. A.     Circular of 23 February 1998 11.     On 26 August 1997 the applicant, who was then in her fifth year at the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Bursa, enrolled at the Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine at the University of Istanbul. She says that she wore the Islamic headscarf during the four years she spent studying medicine at the University of Bursa and continued to do so until February 1998. 12.     On 23 February 1998 the Vice-Chancellor of Istanbul University issued a circular regulating students’ admission to the university campus. The relevant part of the circular provides: “By virtue of the Constitution, the law and regulations, and in accordance with the case-law of the Supreme Administrative Court and the European Commission of Human Rights and the resolutions adopted by the university administrative boards, students whose ‘heads are covered’ (wearing the Islamic headscarf) and students (including overseas students) with beards must not be admitted to lectures, courses or tutorials. Consequently, the name and number of any student with a beard or wearing the Islamic headscarf must not be added to the lists of registered students. However, if students whose names and numbers are not on the lists insist on attending tutorials and entering lecture theatres, they must be advised of the position and, should they refuse to leave, their names and numbers must be noted and they must be informed that they are not entitled to attend lectures. If they refuse to leave the lecture theatre, the teacher shall record what has happened in a report explaining why it has not been possible to give the lecture and shall bring the matter to the attention of the university authorities as a matter of urgency so that disciplinary measures can be taken.” 13.     On 12 March 1998, in accordance with the aforementioned circular, the applicant was denied access by invigilators to a written examination on oncology because she was wearing the Islamic headscarf. On 20   March 1998 the secretarial offices of the chair of orthopaedic traumatology refused to allow her to enrol because she was wearing a headscarf. On 16   April 1998 she was refused admission to a neurology lecture and on 10   June 1998 to a written examination on public health, again for the same reason. B.     The application for an order setting aside the circular of 23   February 1998 14.     On 29 July 1998 the applicant lodged an application for an order setting aside the circular of 23 February 1998. In her written pleadings, she submitted that the circular and its implementation infringed her rights guaranteed by Articles 8, 9 and 14 of the Convention and Article 2 of Protocol No. 1, in that there was no statutory basis for the circular and the education authority had no regulatory power in this sphere. 15.     In a judgment of 19 March 1999, the Istanbul Administrative Court dismissed the application, holding that by virtue of section 13(b) of the Higher-Education Act (Law no. 2547 – see paragraph 50 below) a university vice chancellor, as the executive organ of the university, had power to regulate students’ dress in order to maintain order. That regulatory power had to be exercised in accordance with the relevant legislation and the judgments of the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Administrative Court. Referring to the settled case-law of those courts, the Administrative Court held that neither the regulation in issue, nor the individual measures, could be considered illegal. 16.     On 19 April 2001 the Supreme Administrative Court dismissed an appeal by the applicant on points of law. C.     The disciplinary measures taken against the applicant 17.     In May 1998 disciplinary proceedings were brought against the applicant under Article 6(a) of the Students Disciplinary Procedure Rules (see paragraph 48 below) as a result of her failure to comply with the rules on dress. 18.     On 26 May 1998, in view of the fact that the applicant had shown by her actions that she intended to continue wearing the headscarf to lectures and/or tutorials, the dean of the faculty declared that her attitude and failure to comply with the rules on dress were not befitting of a student. He therefore decided to issue her with a warning. 19.     On 15 February 1999 an unauthorised assembly gathered outside the deanery of the Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine to protest against the rules on dress. 20.     On 26 February 1999 the dean of the faculty began disciplinary proceedings against various students, including the applicant, for taking part in the assembly. On 13 April 1999, after hearing her representations, he suspended her from the university for a semester pursuant to Article 9(j) of the Students Disciplinary Procedure Rules (see paragraph 48 below). 21.     On 10 June 1999 the applicant lodged an application with the Istanbul Administrative Court for an order quashing the decision to suspend her. 22.     On 20 August 1999 Istanbul University submitted its observations on her application. It argued, inter alia , that the disciplinary penalty was lawful as the reason for the applicant’s one-semester suspension was that she had taken part in an unauthorised assembly. 23.     On 30 November 1999 the applicant’s application to have the disciplinary penalty quashed was dismissed by the Istanbul Administrative Court, which held that in the light of the material in the case file and the settled case-law on the subject, the impugned measure could not be regarded as illegal. 24.     Following the entry into force of Law no. 4584 of 28 June 2000 (which afforded students an amnesty for disciplinary offences and annulled any resulting penalties or disabilities), the applicant was granted an amnesty releasing her from all the disciplinary penalties and their effects. On 28 September 2000 the Supreme Administrative Court held that the aforementioned legislation made it unnecessary to examine the merits of the applicant’s appeal on points of law against the judgment of 30   November 1999. 25.     In the meantime, on 16 September 1999, the applicant had enrolled at Vienna University, where she pursued her university education. II.     RELEVANT DOMESTIC LAW AND PRACTICE A.     The Constitution 26.     The relevant provisions of the Constitution provide: Article 2 “The Republic of Turkey is a democratic, secular ( laik ) and social State based on the rule of law, respectful of human rights in a spirit of social peace, national solidarity and justice, adhering to the nationalism of Atatürk and resting on the fundamental principles set out in the Preamble.” Article 4 “No amendment may be made or proposed to the provisions of Article 1 of the Constitution laying down that the State shall be a Republic, the provisions of Article   2 concerning the characteristics of the Republic or the provisions of Article 3.” Article 10 § 1 “All individuals shall be equal before the law without any distinction based on language, race, colour, sex, political opinion, philosophical belief, religion, membership of a religious sect or other similar grounds.” Article 14 § 1 “None of the rights and freedoms referred to in the Constitution shall be exercised with a view to undermining the territorial integrity of the State and the unity of the nation, jeopardising the existence of the Turkish State or Republic, abolishing fundamental rights and freedoms, placing the control of the State in the hands of a single individual or group, ensuring the domination of one social class over other social classes, introducing discrimination on the grounds of language, race, religion or membership of a religious body, or establishing by any other means a political system based on such concepts and opinions.” Article 24 §§ 1 and 4 “Everyone has the right to freedom of conscience, belief and religious conviction. Prayers, worship and religious services shall be conducted freely, provided that they do not violate the provisions of Article 14. No one shall be compelled to participate in prayers, worship or religious services or to reveal his religious beliefs and convictions; nor shall he be censured or prosecuted because of his religious beliefs or convictions. ... No one may exploit or abuse religion, religious feelings or things held sacred by religion in any manner whatsoever with a view to causing the social, economic, political or legal order of the State to be based on religious precepts, even if only in part, or for the purpose of securing political or personal interest or influence thereby.” B.     History and background 1.     Religious dress and the principle of secularism 27.     The Turkish Republic was founded on the principle that the State should be secular ( laik ). After the proclamation of the Republic on 29   October 1923, the public and religious spheres were separated through a series of revolutionary reforms: the abolition of the caliphate on 3   March 1923; the repeal of the constitutional provision declaring Islam the religion of the State on 10 April 1928; and, lastly, on 5 February 1937 a constitutional amendment according constitutional status to the principle of secularism (see Article 2 of the Constitution of 1924 and Article 2 of the Constitutions of 1961 and 1982, as set out in paragraph 26 above). 28.     The main feature of the republican system was the status accorded to women’s rights, with women being granted equality in the enjoyment of individual rights. The process began on 17 February 1926 with the adoption of the Civil Code, which provided for equality of the sexes in the enjoyment of civic rights, in particular as regards divorce and succession. Subsequently, through a constitutional amendment of 5 December 1934 (Article   10 of the 1924 Constitution), women obtained equal political rights with men. 29.     At the time of the Ottoman Empire both the central government and religious groups required people to dress in accordance with their religious affiliations. The reforms introduced by the Republic on the question of dress were inspired by the evolution of society in the nineteenth century and sought first and foremost to create a religion-free zone in which all citizens were guaranteed equality, without distinction on the grounds of religion or denomination. The first enactment in this sphere was the Headgear Act of 28   November 1925 (Law no. 671), which treated dress as an issue relating to modernity. Similarly, a ban was imposed on wearing religious attire other than in places of worship or at religious ceremonies, irrespective of the religion or belief concerned, by the Dress (Regulations) Act of 3   December 1934 (Law no. 2596). 30.     Under the Education Services (Merger) Act of 3 March 1924 (Law   no.   430), religious schools were closed and all schools came under the control of the Ministry for Education. This Act is one of the laws enjoying constitutional status that are protected by Article 174 of the Turkish Constitution. 31.     Wearing the Islamic headscarf to school and university is a recent phenomenon in Turkey, which began in the 1980s. There has been extensive discussion on the issue and it continues to be the subject of lively debate in Turkish society. Those in favour of the headscarf see wearing it as a duty and/or form of expression linked to religious identity, whereas those against regard it as a symbol of a political Islam that is seeking to establish a regime based on religious precepts and threatens to cause civil unrest and undermine the rights acquired by women under the republican system. The accession to power on 28 June 1996 of a coalition government comprising the Islamist Refah Partisi , and the centre-right Doğru Yol Partisi , has given the debate strong political overtones. The ambivalence displayed by the leaders of the Refah Partisi , including the then Prime Minister, over their attachment to democratic values, and their advocacy of a plurality of legal systems functioning according to different religious rules for each religious community was perceived in Turkish society as a genuine threat to republican values and civil peace (see Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey [GC], nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and   41344/98, ECHR 2003-II). 32.     It should be noted in that connection that one of the matters taken into consideration by the Constitutional Court in two judgments concerning the dissolution of political parties was the use of religious symbols to political ends (judgments of 9 January 1998 in the Refah Partisi case and of 22   June 2001 in the Fazilet Partisi case). It considered that the opinions expressed by the leaders of those parties, inter alia , on the question whether the Islamic headscarf should be worn in the public sector and/or schools demonstrated an intention to set up a regime based on the Sharia. 2.     The rules on dress in higher-education institutions and the case-law of the Constitutional Court 33.     The first piece of legislation on dress in higher-education institutions was a set of regulations that was issued by the Cabinet on 22 July 1981, which required staff working for public organisations and institutions and personnel and students at State institutions to wear ordinary, sober, modern dress. The regulations also provided that female members of staff and students should not wear veils in educational institutions. 34.     On 20 December 1982 the Higher-Education Authority issued a circular on the wearing of headscarves in higher-education institutions. The Islamic headscarf was banned in lecture theatres. In a judgment of 13   December 1984, the Supreme Administrative Court held that the regulations were lawful, noting: “Beyond being a mere innocent practice, wearing the headscarf is in the process of becoming the symbol of a vision that is contrary to the freedoms of women and the fundamental principles of the Republic.” 35.     On 10 December 1988 transitional section 16 of the Higher-Education Act (Law no. 2547 – “the Higher-Education Act”) entered into force. It provided: “Modern dress or appearance shall be compulsory in the rooms and corridors of higher-education institutions, preparatory schools, laboratories, clinics and multidisciplinary clinics. A veil or headscarf covering the neck and hair may be worn out of religious conviction.” 36.     In a judgment of 7 March 1989 published in the Official Gazette of 5   July 1989, the Constitutional Court held that the aforementioned provision was contrary to Articles 2 (secularism), 10 (equality before the law) and   24 (freedom of religion) of the Constitution. It also found that it could not be reconciled with the principle of sexual equality implicit, inter alia , in republican and revolutionary values (see the Constitution – Preamble and Article   174). In their judgment, the Constitutional Court judges explained, firstly, that secularism had acquired constitutional status by reason of the historical experience of the country and the particularities of Islam compared to other religions; secularism was an essential condition for democracy and acted as a guarantor of freedom of religion and of equality before the law. It also prevented the State from showing a preference for a religion or belief; consequently, a secular State could not invoke religious conviction when performing its legislative function. Stressing its inviolable nature, the Constitutional Court observed that freedom of religion, conscience and worship, which could not be likened to a right to wear any particular religious attire, guaranteed first and foremost the liberty to decide whether or not to follow a religion. It explained that, once outside the private sphere of individual conscience, freedom to manifest one’s religion could be restricted on public-order grounds to defend the principle of secularism. Everyone was free to dress how he or she wished, as the social and religious values and traditions of society also had to be respected. However, when a particular dress code was imposed on individuals by reference to a religion, the religion concerned was perceived and presented as a set of values that were incompatible with those of contemporary society. In addition, in Turkey, where the majority of the population were Muslims, presenting the wearing of the Islamic headscarf as a mandatory religious duty would result in discrimination between practising Muslims, non-practising Muslims and non-believers on grounds of dress with anyone who refused to wear the headscarf undoubtedly being regarded as opposed to religion or as irreligious. The Constitutional Court also said that students had to be able to work and pursue their education together in a calm, tolerant and mutually supportive atmosphere without being deflected from that goal by signs of religious affiliation. It found that, irrespective of whether the Islamic headscarf was a precept of Islam, granting legal recognition to a religious symbol of that type in higher-education institutions was not compatible with the principle that State education must be neutral, as it would be liable to generate conflicts between students with differing religious convictions or beliefs. 37.     On 25 October 1990 transitional section 17 of the Higher-Education Act (Law no. 2547) entered into force. It provides: “Choice of dress shall be free in higher-education institutions, provided that it does not contravene the laws in force.” 38.     In a judgment of 9 April 1991, which was published in the Official Gazette of 31 July 1991, the Constitutional Court noted that, in the light of the principles it had established in its judgment of 7 March 1989, the aforementioned provision did not allow headscarves to be worn in higher-education institutions on religious grounds and so was consistent with the Constitution. It stated, inter alia : “In higher-education institutions, it is contrary to the principles of secularism and equality for the neck and hair to be covered with a veil or headscarf on grounds of religious belief. In these circumstances, the freedom of dress which the impugned provision permits in higher-education institutions ‘does not concern dress of a religious nature or the act of covering one’s neck and hair with a veil and headscarf’... The freedom afforded by this provision [transitional section 17] is conditional on its not being contrary ‘to the laws in force’. The judgment [of 7 March 1989] of the Constitutional Court establishes that covering one’s neck and hair with the headscarf is first and foremost contrary to the Constitution. Consequently, the condition set out in the aforementioned section requiring [choice of] dress not to contravene the laws in force removes from the scope of freedom of dress the act of ‘covering one’s neck and hair with the headscarf’...” 3.     Application of the regulations at Istanbul University 39.     Istanbul University was founded in the fifteenth century and is one of the main centres of State higher education in Turkey. It is a secular University, comprising seventeen faculties (including two faculties of medicine – Cerrahpaşa and Çapa) and twelve schools of higher education. It is attended by approximately 50,000 students. 40.     In 1994, following a petitioning campaign launched by female students enrolled on the midwifery course at the University High School for the Medical Professions, the Vice Chancellor circulated a memorandum in which he explained the background to the Islamic-headscarf issue and the legal basis for the relevant regulations. He said in particular: “The ban prohibiting female students enrolled on the midwifery course from wearing the headscarf during tutorials is not intended to infringe their freedom of conscience and religion, but to comply with the laws and regulations in force. When doing their work, midwives and nurses wear a uniform. That uniform is described in and identified by regulations issued by the Ministry of Health... Students who wish to join the profession are aware of this. Imagine a student of midwifery trying to put a baby in or to remove it from an incubator, or assisting a doctor in an operating theatre or maternity unit while wearing a long-sleeved coat.” 41.     The Vice Chancellor was concerned that the campaign for permission to wear the Islamic headscarf on all university premises had reached the point where there was a risk of its undermining order and causing unrest at the University, the Faculty and the Cerrahpaşa Hospital High School for the Medical Professions. He called on the students to comply with the rules on dress, reminding them, in particular, of the rights of the patients. 42.     A resolution regarding the rules on dress for students and university staff was adopted on 1 June 1994 by the University executive and provides as follows: “The rules governing dress in universities are set out in the laws and regulations. The Constitutional Court has delivered a judgment which prevents religious attire being worn in universities. This judgment applies to all students of our University and the academic staff, both administrative and otherwise, at all levels. In particular, nurses, midwives, doctors and vets are required to comply with the regulations on dress, as dictated by scientific considerations and the legislation, during health and applied science tutorials (on nursing, laboratory work, surgery and microbiology). Anyone not complying with the rules on dress will be refused access to tutorials.” 43.     On 23 February 1998 a circular was distributed containing instructions on the admission of students with beards or wearing the Islamic headscarf. It was signed by the Vice Chancellor of the University of Istanbul (for the text of this circular, see paragraph 12 above). 44.     After the hearing on 19 November 2002 the applicant produced a letter of 1 April 2002 which the Higher-Education Authority had sent to the university authorities inviting them to grant a request by students of the Jewish faith for their attendance to be excused during Jewish holidays. 45.     On 18 March 2003 the Government produced to the Court a resolution (no. 11) adopted by the University of Istanbul on 9 July 1998, which is worded as follows: “1.     Students at the University of Istanbul shall comply with the legal principles and rules on dress set out in the decisions of the Constitutional Court and higher judicial bodies. 2.     Students at the University of Istanbul shall not wear clothes that symbolise or manifest any religion, faith, race, or political or ideological persuasion in any institution or department of the University of Istanbul, or on any of its premises. 3.     In the institutions and departments at which they are enrolled, students at the University of Istanbul shall comply with the rules requiring specific clothes to be worn for work-related reasons. 4.     Photographs supplied by students of the University of Istanbul to their institution or department [must be taken] from the ‘front’ ‘with head and neck uncovered’. They must be no more than six months old and make the student readily identifiable. 5.     Anyone displaying an attitude that is contrary to the aforementioned points or who, through his words, writings or deeds, encourages such an attitude shall be liable to action under the provisions of the regulations relating to disciplinary proceedings against students.” 4.     Students Disciplinary Procedure Rules 46.     The Students Disciplinary Procedure Rules, which were published in the Official Gazette of 13 January 1985, prescribe five forms of disciplinary penalty: a warning, a reprimand, temporary suspension of between a week and a month, temporary suspension of one or two semesters and expulsion. 47.     Merely wearing the Islamic headscarf on university premises does not constitute a disciplinary offence. However, failure to comply with the rules on dress may entail the application of another provision of the rules. 48.     By virtue of Article 6(a) of the Rules, a student whose “behaviour and attitude are not befitting of students” will be liable to a warning. A reprimand will be issued, inter alia , to students whose conduct is such as to lose them the respect and trust which students are required to command or who disrupt lectures, seminars, tutorials in laboratories or workshops (Article   7(a) and (e)). Students who directly or indirectly restrict the freedom of others to learn and teach or whose conduct is liable to disturb the calm, tranquillity and industriousness required in higher-education institutions or who engage in political activities in such institutions are liable to temporary suspension of between a week and a month (Article   8(a) and   (c)). Article 9(j) lays down that students who organise or take part in unauthorised meetings on university premises are liable to one or two semesters’ suspension. 49.     The procedure for investigating disciplinary complaints is governed by Articles 13 to 34 of the Rules. Articles 16 and 33 provide that the rights of defence of students must be respected and the disciplinary board must take into account the reasons that caused the student to transgress the rules. All disciplinary measures are subject to judicial review in the administrative courts. 5.     The regulatory power of the university vice chancellors 50.     Since universities are public-law bodies by virtue of Article   130 of the Constitution, they enjoy a degree of autonomy, subject to State control, that is reflected in the fact that they are run by management organs, such as the vice chancellor, with delegated statutory powers. The relevant parts of section 13 of the Higher-Education Act (Law no.   2547) provide: “... (b)     Vice chancellors have the following powers, competence and responsibilities: 1.     To chair meetings of university boards, implement their resolutions, examine proposals by the university boards and take such decisions as shall be necessary, and ensure that institutions forming part of the university function in a coordinated manner; ... 5.     To supervise and monitor the university departments and university staff at all levels. It is the vice chancellor who is primarily responsible for taking security measures and for supervising and monitoring teaching from the administrative and scientific perspectives...” 51.     Both legal commentators and the administrative courts regard the monitoring and supervisory powers conferred on the vice chancellor by the aforementioned provision as including a power to issue regulations, as well as to take individual measures. Exercise of this power is subject to the requirement of lawfulness and to scrutiny by the administrative courts. Both written instruments (legislation and the Constitution) and judge-made law (the case-law of the administrative courts and the Constitutional Court) constitute valid sources of law. Similarly, regulations issued under the proper procedure will themselves be a valid source of law with which individual measures taken thereunder must comply. C.     The binding force of the reasoning in judgments of the Constitutional Court 52.     In its judgment of 27 May 1999 (E. 1998/58, K. 1999/19), which was published in the Official Gazette of 4 March 2000, the Constitutional Court stated, inter alia : “The legislature and executive are bound by both the operative provisions of judgments and the reasoning taken as a whole. Judgments and the reasons stated in them lay down the standards by which legislative activity will be measured and establish guidelines for such activity.” D.     Comparative law 53.     In European countries, the debate on the Islamic headscarf is concerned more with primary and secondary State schools than with higher-education institutions. In the French speaking parts of Belgium, where there are no rules concerning the headscarf and disputes on the issue are generally resolved at local level, a number of State schools have refused to allow the Islamic headscarf. In the cases which have come before them, the Belgian courts have consistently held that the principles of equality and neutrality of State education take precedence over freedom of religion and have found against the complainants and their families. 54.     In France, where secularism is regarded as one of the cornerstones of republican values, the question of the Islamic headscarf in State schools has given rise to a very lively debate. After the Commission on Secularism had reported to the President of the Republic with its opinion, the National Assembly approved a bill on 10 February 2004 regulating, pursuant to the principle of secularism, the wearing of signs or dress manifesting a religious affiliation in State primary and secondary schools. Article 1 of the Act provides: “In State primary and secondary schools, the wearing of signs or dress by which pupils overtly manifest a religious affiliation is prohibited. The school rules shall state that the institution of disciplinary proceedings shall be preceded by a dialogue with the pupil.” 55.     As regards the universities, the Commission on Secularism considered that precedence should be given to the students’ right to express their religious, political and philosophical convictions. However, it stated in its report that such expression should not lead to transgressions of the rules on the functioning of universities. 56.     In other countries, in some cases after a protracted legal debate, the State education authorities permit Muslim pupils and students to wear the Islamic headscarf (in Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Kingdom). Nevertheless, the legal position is not uniform. In Germany, where the debate has for several years focused on whether teachers should be allowed to wear the Islamic headscarf, the Constitutional Court stated on 24   September 2003 in a case between a teacher and the Land of Baden-Württemberg that the lack of any express statutory prohibition meant that teachers were entitled to wear the headscarf. In the United Kingdom the Islamic headscarf is accepted by most teaching institutions and the rare disputes that do arise are generally resolved within the institution concerned. 57.     It would appear that in a number of other countries, the issue of the Islamic headscarf has yet to give rise to any detailed legal debate (Sweden, Austria, Spain, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland). THE LAW I.     THE GOVERNMENT’S PRELIMINARY OBJECTION 58.     The Government pleaded a failure to exhaust domestic remedies. In their submission, since the applicant had not contested the legality of the rules on dress in the administrative courts, she could not be regarded as having exhausted domestic remedies. 59.     The applicant argued in her initial observations that, in view of the settled case-law of the Turkish courts, she had no effective remedy. 60.     The Court notes, firstly, that on 2 July 2002 it decided, in the light of the material in its possession, to declare the case admissible and to join the issue of exhaustion to the merits. 61.     Subsequently, at the Court’s request, the applicant produced with her observations of 29 September 2003 the documents concerning an application to the domestic courts on 29 July 1998 for an order setting aside the circular of 23 February 1998 (see paragraphs 14-16 above) and asserted that she had exhausted domestic remedies. The Court notes that the applicant did not inform it that she had exercised the aforementioned domestic remedy until after the issue of admissibility had been examined or inform it that various disciplinary measures had been taken against her (see paragraphs   19-24 above). 62.     The Court reiterates that, under its case-law, while an applicant is, as a rule, in duty bound to exercise the different domestic remedies before applying to the Convention institutions, it must be left open to the Convention institutions to accept the fact that the last stage of such remedies may be reached after the lodging of the application, as long as the remedies are exhausted before the decision on admissibility ( Ringeisen v.   Austria , judgment of 16 July 1971, Series A no. 13, pp. 37-38, §§ 89-93; and Vgt Verein gegen Tierfabriken v. Switzerland , no. 24699/94, § 33, ECHR 2001 ‑ VI). 63.     Having examined the information which was submitted out of time, the Court finds that the applicant, who exhausted domestic remedies on 19   April 2001 (see paragraph 16 above) before the decision on admissibility was handed down, can be regarded as having satisfied the requirements of Article 35 § 1 of the Convention. Consequently, it dismisses the Government’s preliminary objection. II.     ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLE 9 OF THE CONVENTION 64.     The applicant submitted that the ban on wearing the Islamic headscarf in higher-education institutions constituted an unjustified interference with her right to freedom of religion, and, in particular, her right to manifest her religion. She relied on Article 9 of the Convention, which provides: “1.   Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching, practice and observance. 2.   Freedom to manifest one’s religion or beliefs shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety, for the protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.” 65.     The Government denied that there had been such a breach. In their submission, there had been no interference with the applicant’s right to exercise her freedom of religion. Even if there had been, it was justified under paragraph 2 of Article 9 of the Convention. 66.     The Court reiterates that as enshrined in Article 9, freedom of thought, conscience and religion is one of the foundations of a “democratic society” within the meaning of the Convention. This freedom is, in its religious dimension, one of the most vital elements that go to make up the identity of believers and their conception of life, but it is also a precious asset for atheists, agnostics, sceptics and the unconcerned. The pluralism indissociable from a democratic society, which has been dearly won over the centuries, depends on it. That freedom entails, inter alia , freedom to hold or not to hold religious beliefs and to practise or not to practise a religion (see, among other authorities, Kokkinakis v. Greece , 25   May 1993, Series   A no. 260-A, p. 17, § 3; and Buscarini and Others v. San Marino [GC], no. 24645/94, § 34, ECHR 1999-I). While religious freedom is primarily a matter of individual conscience, it also implies, inter alia , freedom to manifest one’s religion, alone and in private, or in community with others, in public and within the circle of those whose faith one shares. Article 9 lists a number of forms which manifestation of one’s religion or belief may take, namely worship, teaching, practice and observance (see, mutatis mutandis , Cha’are Shalom Ve Tsedek v. France [GC], no. 27417/95, § 73, ECHR 2000-VII). Article 9 does not protect every act motivated or inspired by a religion or belief and does not in all cases guarantee the right to behave in the public sphere in a way which is dictated by a belief (see, among many other authorities, Kalaç v. Turkey , judgment of 1 July 1997, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1997-IV, p. 1209, § 27; Arrowsmith v. the United Kingdom , no.   7050/75, Commission decision of 12 October 1978, Decisions and Reports (DR) 19, p. 5; and C. v. the United Kingdom , no.   10358/83, Commission decision of 15 December 1983, DR 37, p. 142). 67.     The Court must consider whether the applicant’s right under Article   9 was interfered with and, if so, whether such interference was “prescribed by law”, pursued a legitimate aim and was “necessary in a democratic society” within the meaning of Article 9 § 2 of the Convention. A.     Whether there was an interference 68.     The applicant said that her manner of dressing had to be treated as the observance of a religious rule which she regarded as a “recognised practice”. She maintained that the restriction and her resulting exclusion from the University of Istanbul was a clear interference with her right to freedom to manifest her religion. 69.     The Government rejected that argument, saying that the university regulations were based both on rules of domestic law on students’ dress and principles of international law. They submitted that Article 9 of the Convention did not afford a right to invoke one’s beliefs as a reason for refusing to comply with legislation whose implementation was contemplated by the Convention and which applied generally and without distinction in the public sphere. 70.     The Court notes, firstly, that, according to the material in the case file, no disciplinary proceedings have been brought against the applicant that resulted in her expulsion for failure to comply with the rules on dress. Nor has the applicant complained about the disciplinary penalties that were imposed on her before being annulled on 28 June 2000 (see paragraph   24 above). The present application, therefore, only concerns a general measure issued by the University of Istanbul, namely the circular of 23   February 1998, and its implementation in the instant case. 71.     The applicant said that, by wearing the headscarf, she was obeying a religious precept and thereby manifesting her desire to comply strictly with the duties imposed by the Islamic faith. Accordingly, her decision to wear the headscarf may be regarded as motivated or inspired by a religion or belief and, without deciding whether such decisions are in every case taken to fulfil a religious duty, the Court proceeds on the assumption that the regulations in issue, which placed restrictions of place and manner on the right to wear the Islamic headscarf in universities, constituted an interference with the applicant’s right to manifest her religion. B.     ”Prescribed by law” 72.     The applicant maintained that the ban on wearing the headscarf on university premises had no statutory basis, as it was founded on an erroneous interpretation by the university authori