CEDH · CASELAW;JUDGMENTS;GRANDCHAMBER;ENG — 18 octobre 2006

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page-break-after:avoid; font-size:14pt } .s58B8AE49 { clear:both; mso-column-break-before:always } .sCE735C95 { margin-top:12pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:center } .s7ED160F0 { text-decoration:none } .s33165EBA { font-family:Arial; font-size:8pt; vertical-align:super; color:#0069d6 } .sF6A12959 { width:33%; height:1px; text-align:left } .s85226119 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt }     GRAND CHAMBER             CASE OF ÜNER v. THE NETHERLANDS   (Application no. 46410/99)                     JUDGMENT       STRASBOURG   18 October 2006       In the case of Üner v. the Netherlands, The European Court of Human Rights, sitting as a Grand Chamber composed of:   Luzius Wildhaber, President ,   Christos Rozakis,   Jean-Paul Costa,   Nicolas Bratza,   Boštjan M. Zupančič,   Giovanni Bonello,   Lucius Caflisch,   Rıza Türmen,   John Hedigan,   Margarita Tsatsa-Nikolovska,   Rait Maruste,   Anatoly Kovler,   Vladimiro Zagrebelsky,   Lech Garlicki,   Egbert Myjer,   Danutė Jočienė,   Ján Šikuta, judges , and Lawrence Early, Section Registrar , Having deliberated in private on 5 April and 30 August 2006, Delivers the following judgment, which was adopted on the last-mentioned date: PROCEDURE 1.     The case originated in an application (no. 46410/99) against the Kingdom of the Netherlands lodged with the European Commission of Human Rights (“the Commission”) under former Article 25 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) by a Turkish national, Mr Ziya Üner (“the applicant”), on 4 August 1998. 2.     The applicant was represented by Mr R. Dhalganjansing, a lawyer practising in The Hague. The Netherlands Government (“the Government”) were represented by their Agent, Mrs J. Schukking, of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 3.     The applicant alleged, in particular, a violation of Article 8 of the Convention in that he had been excluded from the Netherlands following a criminal conviction. 4.     The application was transmitted to the Court on 1 November 1998, when Protocol No. 11 to the Convention came into force (Article 5 § 2 of Protocol No. 11). 5.     The application was allocated to the Second Section of the Court (Rule 52 § 1 of the Rules of Court). In a partial decision of 26 November 2002, a Chamber of that Section declared inadmissible the applicant’s complaints under Articles 3 and 6 of the Convention, Articles 2 and 4 of Protocol No. 7 and Article 14 of the Convention taken in conjunction with Article 4 of Protocol No. 7, and adjourned its examination of the complaint under Article 8 of the Convention. By a decision of 1 June 2004, the Chamber declared the remainder of the application admissible. 6.     On 1 November 2004 the Court changed the composition of its Sections (Rule 25 § 1), but this case remained with the Chamber constituted within the former Second Section. 7.     On 5 July 2005 a Chamber of that Section, composed of Jean-Paul Costa, President , András Baka, Loukis Loucaides, Corneliu Bîrsan, Karel Jungwiert, Wilhelmina Thomassen, Mindia Ugrekhelidze, and Sally Dollé, Section Registrar , delivered a judgment in which it held by a majority that there had been no violation of Article 8 of the Convention. The concurring opinion of the President, Jean-Paul Costa, and the dissenting opinion of András Baka were annexed to the judgment. 8.     In a letter of 4 October 2005, the applicant requested, in accordance with Article 43 of the Convention and Rule 73, that the case be referred to the Grand Chamber. A panel of the Grand Chamber accepted that request on 30 November 2005. 9.     The composition of the Grand Chamber was determined according to the provisions of Article 27 §§ 2 and 3 of the Convention and Rule 24. Wilhelmina Thomassen, the judge elected in respect of the Netherlands at the time the former Second Section adopted its judgment in the present case, withdrew from sitting in the Grand Chamber (Rule 28). The Government subsequently agreed that Egbert Myjer, the current judge elected in respect of the Netherlands, should sit in her place. Sverre Erik Jebens, who was prevented from sitting in the second deliberations, was replaced by the first substitute judge, Rait Maruste (Rule 24 § 3). 10.     The Government, but not the applicant, filed a memorial on the merits. In addition, third-party comments were received from the German Government, who had been given leave by the President to intervene in the written procedure (Article 36 § 2 of the Convention and Rule 44 § 2 (a)). The parties were invited to reply to those comments at the hearing (Rule 44 § 5). 11.     A hearing took place in public in the Human Rights Building, Strasbourg, on 5 April 2006 (Rule 59 § 3). There appeared before the Court: (a)     for the Government Mrs   J. Schukking ,   Agent , Mr   M. Kuijer Ms   M.-L. van Dongen ,   Advisers ; (b)     for the applicant Mr   R. Dhalganjansing   Counsel .   The Court heard addresses by Mr Dhalganjansing, Mrs Schukking and Mr Kuijer as well as their partial replies to questions put by judges. Both parties requested, and were granted, permission to complete their replies in writing. Replies were received from the Government on 19 April 2006 and from the applicant on 19 April and 1 May 2006. THE FACTS I.     THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE CASE 12.     The applicant was born in 1969 and lived in Turkey until 1981. 13.     The applicant came to the Netherlands with his mother and two brothers in 1981, when he was 12 years old, in order to join his father who had already been living there for ten years. He was granted a residence permit ( vergunning tot verblijf ) which he was required to renew at one-yearly intervals until 1988, when he obtained a permanent residence permit ( vestigingsvergunning ). 14.     On 18 January 1989 the applicant was convicted by the single-judge chamber of the Almelo Regional Court ( arrondissementsrechtbank ) of the offence of breach of the peace ( lokaalvredebreuk ), and fined 200   Netherlands guilders (NLG – 90 euros (EUR)). The same court convicted him on 30 May 1990 of violent offence against the person, committed in public ( openlijke geweldpleging ), and sentenced him to a fine of NLG 350 (EUR 159) and a suspended term of imprisonment of two weeks. 15.     In 1991 the applicant entered into a relationship with a Netherlands national. They started living together in or around June 1991. A son was born to the couple on 4 February 1992. 16.     On 30 June 1992 the applicant was convicted by the Arnhem Court of Appeal ( gerechtshof ) of violent offence against the person, committed in public, and sentenced to eighty hours of community service (in lieu of six months’ imprisonment). 17.     During the second pregnancy of the applicant’s partner, the relationship began to suffer. In order to alleviate the situation, the applicant moved out in November 1992, but remained in close contact with both his partner and his son. The pregnancy ended in a miscarriage. 18.     On 16 May 1993 the applicant was involved in a dispute in a café. He pulled a loaded gun and shot a man, wounding him in the leg. Outside the café he then got into a fight with a friend of the injured man. He pulled a second loaded gun and shot him in the head. The man died. The applicant was convicted of manslaughter ( doodslag ) and assault ( zware mishandeling ) by the Arnhem Court of Appeal on 21 January 1994 and sentenced to seven years’ imprisonment. 19.     Whilst serving his prison sentence, from 17 May 1993 until 14   January 1998, the applicant took courses in computer skills, administration and accounting, and also obtained a retailer’s certificate ( middenstandsdiploma ). He took further courses in order to qualify as a sports instructor. His partner and son visited him in prison at least once a week and regularly more often. A second son was born to the applicant and his partner on 26 June 1996, whom he also saw every week. Both his children have Netherlands nationality and have been recognised ( erkend ) by the applicant. Neither his partner nor his children speak Turkish. 20.     By a decision of 30 January 1997, the Deputy Minister of Justice ( Staatssecretaris van Justitie ) withdrew the applicant’s permanent residence permit and imposed a ten-year exclusion order ( ongewenstverklaring ) on him in view of his conviction of 21 January 1994 and seven-year prison sentence. The Deputy Minister considered that the general interest in ensuring public safety and the prevention of disorder and crime outweighed the applicant’s interest in being able to continue his family life with his partner, children, parents and brothers in the Netherlands. 21.     The applicant lodged an objection ( bezwaarschrift ) against this decision, arguing that the offence in question had been committed long before, in May 1993, that he had not reoffended, that there was no indication that he would reoffend, and that his partner and children could not be expected to follow him to Turkey. Following a hearing before the Advisory Board on matters concerning aliens ( Adviescommissie voor vreemdelingenzaken ) on 1 July 1997, at which the applicant was assisted by an interpreter, the Deputy Minister rejected the objection on 4 September 1997 and ordered the applicant to leave the Netherlands as soon as he was released from prison. 22.     The applicant appealed to the Regional Court of The Hague, sitting in Zwolle, submitting that, as there was no risk of his reoffending, there was no necessity to impose an exclusion order on him and that to do so amounted to the imposition of a second penalty. 23.     The applicant was released from prison on 14 January 1998 and subsequently placed in aliens’ detention ( vreemdelingenbewaring ) pending his deportation. 24.     Following a hearing on 28 January 1998, the Regional Court rejected the applicant’s appeal on 4 February 1998. The Regional Court did not accept the applicant’s argument that the period of time that had elapsed between the date on which his criminal conviction had become irrevocable and the date on which the exclusion order had been imposed was so long that the Deputy Minister should be deemed to have acquiesced in the applicant’s continued residence in the Netherlands. Furthermore, it did not discern any facts or circumstances capable of justifying a reduction of the period for which the applicant would be excluded from Netherlands territory. The applicant’s claim that there was no risk of his reoffending was based solely on his own statements and was not supported by the facts, given that he had also been convicted of violent offences in 1990 and 1992. In addition, it did not appear that the applicant had put down roots in the Netherlands or become dissociated from Turkish society to such a degree that he would be unable to return to his country of origin. Finally, the Regional Court considered that the interference with the applicant’s family life was justified for the purposes of preventing disorder and crime. 25.     The applicant was deported to Turkey on 11 February 1998. However, it appears that he returned to the Netherlands soon afterwards, as he was apprehended there on 29 May 1998. He was again deported to Turkey on 4 June 1998, and a request for a provisional stay of execution of the deportation order, which he had lodged with the Regional Court of The Hague, was declared inadmissible on 24 August 1998. He was also convicted of the offence of residing illegally in the Netherlands while subject to an exclusion order (Article 197 of the Criminal Code ( Wetboek van Strafrecht )) and sentenced to three months’ imprisonment. 26.     On 17 September 1998 the applicant requested that the exclusion order be revoked. The Deputy Minister of Justice refused the request on 26   October 1998 and on 13 April 2000 dismissed an objection the applicant had filed against that refusal. The applicant subsequently lodged an appeal, which was declared inadmissible by the Regional Court of The Hague, sitting in Zwolle, on 2 August 2000. No appeal lay against that decision. 27.     The applicant submitted that, prior to his deportation in 1998, he had only been back to Turkey once in order to attend the funeral of his grandmother, and that he did not speak the Turkish language apart from understanding certain expressions. His only relative in Turkey was an uncle with whom he had no contact. 28.     According to a report drawn up by a psychiatrist in Turkey on 9 June 1998, the applicant was suffering from psychological problems as a result of being separated from his family. In particular, not being able to see his children was making him depressed. Treatment had begun in March 1998 and was continuing, though some improvement had been noted. 29.     On 29 March 2006 the applicant was discovered working at an illegal cannabis plantation in the Netherlands. He was arrested and subsequently placed in aliens’ detention. This detention was discontinued on 1 May 2006 in order to execute the judgment whereby the applicant had been sentenced to three months’ imprisonment (see paragraph 25 above). On 16 May 2006 the applicant was deported to Turkey. II.     RELEVANT DOMESTIC LAW AND PRACTICE A.     Netherlands law with regard to aliens 30.     At the relevant time the decision to withdraw the applicant’s residence permit and to impose an exclusion order on him was taken under sections 14 and 21 of the Aliens Act 1965 ( Vreemdelingenwet 1965) and in accordance with the policy laid down in Chapters A4 and A5 of the Aliens Act Implementation Guidelines 1994 ( Vreemdelingencirculaire – a body of directives drawn up and published by the Ministry of Justice). Underlying this policy is the principle that the longer an alien has lawfully resided in the Netherlands – and the stronger, therefore, his or her ties with the Netherlands are assumed to be – the more serious an offence must be before it can justify withdrawing a residence permit and excluding the alien from Netherlands territory; the authorities thus apply a sliding scale ( glijdende schaal ). 31.     In accordance with this policy, a residence permit may be withdrawn and an exclusion order imposed on an alien who, at the time of committing the offence, has been lawfully residing in the Netherlands for more than ten but less than fifteen years – like the applicant in the present case – if he or she is sentenced to an unsuspended prison sentence of more than sixty months following a conviction for a serious, violent crime or for drug trafficking. 32.     If an exclusion order is imposed on the basis of a conviction for a serious, violent crime or drug trafficking, this order will in any event be revoked, upon request, if the alien has been residing outside the Netherlands for a period of ten years and if he has not been convicted of further criminal offences (Chapter A5/6.4 of the Aliens Act Implementation Guidelines 1994). 33.     A person upon whom an exclusion order has been imposed is not allowed either to reside in or to visit the Netherlands. B.     Netherlands criminal law 34.     Article 15 § 2 of the Criminal Code reads: “A convicted person sentenced to a custodial sentence for a determinate period of which more than one year is to be executed shall be granted early release when two-thirds of that sentence have been served.” Article 15a of the Criminal Code, in so far as relevant, provides: “1.     Early release may be postponed or withheld where: (a)     the convicted person, on grounds of the inadequate development or pathological disturbance of his mental faculties, has been placed in an institution for the treatment of persons subject to an order for confinement in a custodial clinic and where continuation of treatment is required; (b)     the convicted person has been convicted in a final judgment of a serious offence for which, pursuant to Article 67 § 1 of the Code of Criminal Procedure [ Wetboek van Strafvordering ], detention on remand [ voorlopige hechtenis ] is allowed and where the offence was committed after the execution of his sentence commenced; (c)     there is evidence that the convicted person has otherwise grossly misbehaved after the execution of his sentence commenced; (d)     the convicted person evades, or attempts to evade, his sentence after its execution has commenced. 2.     If the prosecuting authorities [ Openbaar Ministerie ] charged with the execution of the sentence consider that, on one of the grounds mentioned in the first paragraph, there is cause for postponing or withholding early release, it shall lodge a written request to that effect with the Arnhem Court of Appeal without delay. ...” III.     OTHER RELEVANT MATERIALS A.     Relevant instruments of the Council of Europe 35.     With regard to the various texts adopted by the Council of Europe in the field of immigration, mention should be made of the Committee of Ministers Recommendations Rec(2000)15 concerning the security of residence of long-term migrants and Rec(2002)4 on the legal status of persons admitted for family reunification, and of Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation 1504 (2001) on the non-expulsion of long-term immigrants. 36.     Recommendation Rec(2000)15 states, inter alia : “4.     As regards the protection against expulsion (a)     Any decision on expulsion of a long-term immigrant should take account, having due regard to the principle of proportionality and in the light of the European Court of Human Rights’ constant case-law, of the following criteria: –     the personal behaviour of the immigrant; –     the duration of residence; –     the consequences for both the immigrant and his or her family; –     existing links of the immigrant and his or her family to his or her country of origin. (b)     In application of the principle of proportionality as stated in paragraph 4 (a), member States should duly take into consideration the length or type of residence in relation to the seriousness of the crime committed by the long-term immigrant. More particularly, member States may provide that a long-term immigrant should not be expelled: –     after five years of residence, except in the case of a conviction for a criminal offence where sentenced to in excess of two years’ imprisonment without suspension; –     after ten years of residence, except in the case of a conviction for a criminal offence where sentenced to in excess of five years of imprisonment without suspension. After twenty years of residence, a long-term immigrant should no longer be expellable. (c)     Long-term immigrants born on the territory of the member State or admitted to the member State before the age of ten, who have been lawfully and habitually resident, should not be expellable once they have reached the age of eighteen. Long-term immigrants who are minors may in principle not be expelled. (d)     In any case, each member State should have the option to provide in its internal law that a long-term immigrant may be expelled if he or she constitutes a serious threat to national security or public safety.” 37.     In Recommendation 1504 (2001) the Parliamentary Assembly recommended that the Committee of Ministers invite the governments of member States, inter alia : “11.     ... (ii)     ... (c)     to undertake to ensure that the ordinary-law procedures and penalties applied to nationals are also applicable to long-term immigrants who have committed the same offence; ... (g)     to take the necessary steps to ensure that in the case of long-term migrants the sanction of expulsion is applied only to particularly serious offences affecting State security of which they have been found guilty; (h)     to guarantee that migrants who were born or raised in the host country and their under-age children cannot be expelled under any circumstances; ...” The Committee of Ministers replied to the Assembly on the matter of non-expulsion of certain migrants on 6 December 2002. It considered that Recommendation Rec(2000)15 addressed many of the concerns of the Assembly and it was thus not minded to devise any new standards. 38.     Under the heading “Effective protection against expulsion of family members”, the Committee of Ministers recommended to governments in Recommendation Rec(2002)4 that, where the withdrawal of or refusal to renew a residence permit, or the expulsion of a family member, is being considered: “...member States should have proper regard to criteria such as the person’s place of birth, his age of entry on the territory, the length of residence, his family relationships, the existence of family ties in the country of origin and the solidity of social and cultural ties with the country of origin. Special consideration should be paid to the best interest and well-being of children.” B.     Comparative law 39.     In the majority of the member States of the Council of Europe, second-generation immigrants may be deported by the authorities on the ground that they have been convicted of a criminal offence. Eight member States have provided in their laws that second-generation immigrants cannot be deported on the basis of their criminal record or activities: Austria, Belgium, France, Hungary, Iceland, Norway, Portugal and Sweden. Apart from Iceland and Norway, this protection is not confined to those who were actually born in the host country but also applies to foreigners who arrived during childhood (varying from before the age of three in Austria to before the age of fifteen in Sweden). THE LAW I.     PRELIMINARY ISSUE: SCOPE OF THE GRAND CHAMBER’S JURISDICTION 40.     In his request for referral of the case to the Grand Chamber, the applicant argued that the present case disclosed a violation not only of Article 8 of the Convention but also of Article 6, in that the Netherlands authorities had waited an unduly long period of time following his conviction before deciding that his residence permit should be withdrawn and that an exclusion order was to be imposed on him. He had perceived those measures as a second punishment. He further submitted that it would not have been possible to expel him had he been a Netherlands national. 41.     The Court observes that under its case-law, the “case” referred to the Grand Chamber is the application as it has been declared admissible (see K. and T. v. Finland [GC], no. 25702/94, § 141, ECHR 2001-VII, and Leyla Şahin v. Turkey [GC], no. 44774/98, § 128, ECHR 2005 ‑ XI). It notes that, in its partial decision of 26 November 2002, the Chamber declared inadmissible those of the applicant’s complaints which did not relate to Article 8 of the Convention (see paragraph 5 above), including complaints under Article 6 of the Convention and Article 4 of Protocol No. 7, taken both on its own and in conjunction with Article 14 of the Convention. As a result of that decision, therefore, the complaint under Article 6 of the Convention and those under Article 4 of Protocol No. 7 and Article 14 of the Convention – assuming that the applicant indeed intended once more to rely on the latter provisions in the present proceedings – are not within the scope of the case before the Grand Chamber. II.     ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLE 8 OF THE CONVENTION 42.     The relevant parts of Article 8 of the Convention provide: “1.     Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life ... 2.     There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.” A.     The Chamber judgment 43.     Applying the guiding principles set out in the Court’s judgment in Boultif v. Switzerland (no. 54273/00, § 48, ECHR 2001-IX), the Chamber, in its judgment of 5 July 2005, concluded that in the circumstances of the present case the respondent State could not be said to have failed to strike a fair balance between the applicant’s interests on the one hand and its own interest in preventing disorder or crime on the other. It accordingly found that there had been no violation of Article 8 of the Convention. B.     The parties’ submissions before the Grand Chamber 1.     The applicant 44.     As he had done before the Chamber, the applicant argued that the respondent Government had failed to strike a fair balance in the present case. When he had committed the offence which ultimately led to the impugned measures, he had still been very young; he had been confronted with violent people and had acted in self-defence. He had subsequently turned over a new leaf, leading, inter alia , to his being granted early release from prison, which indicated that he was no longer regarded as posing a danger to society. The applicant would in any event have preferred to serve a longer sentence if it had meant avoiding deportation and being able to resume his family life in the Netherlands. While the applicant was in detention, his children had been able to visit him regularly and to develop a normal family relationship with him. According to the applicant, following his expulsion his partner and children had visited him on a number of occasions during the summer holidays. Each time they had returned to the Netherlands he had sunk deeper into depression. 45.     By focusing solely on the applicant’s responsibility for the consequences of his actions, the State had disregarded the interests of his partner and his children, all Netherlands nationals. The strength of the relationship with his partner was illustrated by the fact that they had decided to try for a second child while the applicant was still in detention. He would not have taken that decision had he known that he would be refused continued residence in the Netherlands. But the Netherlands authorities had waited more than three years after the criminal conviction before deciding to impose an additional penalty on him by withdrawing his residence permit and making him the subject of an exclusion order. 46.     It was only because he did not have Netherlands nationality that the authorities had been able to impose the impugned measures on him. However, having left Turkey at the age of 12, he had spent more of his life in the Netherlands, where he had a very strong entitlement to residence and into whose society he had integrated to such an extent that he did not think of himself as a foreigner. By contrast, in Turkey he felt like a stranger. Even though the exclusion order was nominally limited in time, it was unlikely that he would ever be able to return to live in the Netherlands, given that new legislation had in the meantime been adopted under the terms of which his criminal conviction could be held against him in an application for a residence permit. 47.     Having been informed that he could attend the hearing before the Grand Chamber, the applicant had been unable to resist the temptation to travel to the Netherlands first in order to see his children. He had accepted the offer of a friend to work in the latter’s cannabis plantation in order to finance his travels and stay in the Netherlands. No criminal proceedings had been instituted against him but he nevertheless realised that he had committed a mistake capable of prejudicing his chances of living with his family in the Netherlands. 2.     The Government 48.     The Government submitted that no support could be found, either in the Convention or in the Court’s case-law, for the idea that the expulsion of aliens belonging to the category of second-generation or long-term immigrants was always disproportionate and discriminatory. Such a premise would entirely eliminate the margin of appreciation enjoyed by the State when assessing individual immigration cases. The principle of non-discrimination did not, in any event, come into play, as the situation of nationals and non-nationals was not equal. 49.     They further maintained that the imposition of an exclusion order in the present case had been necessary in a democratic society as well as proportionate. As the decision to impose an exclusion order was a discretionary power, it was not subject to a time-limit, and it was customary for this procedure not to begin until the person concerned had already been subjected, at least in part, to the measures imposed in connection with the criminal conviction. Given that the applicant must be deemed to have been aware that he risked having an exclusion order imposed on him under the applicable legislation, his family-planning choices were entirely his own responsibility. 50.     The Netherlands authorities had decided to withdraw the applicant’s residence permit and to impose an exclusion order on him after applying the “sliding scale principle”, which took into account the length of his stay in the Netherlands. Even though this may not have been stated explicitly in the text of the decisions in issue, the authorities, as they always did in cases of this nature, had subsequently applied a “full” Article 8 test, involving an assessment of the guiding principles set out by the Court in its judgment in Boultif (cited above). Account had thus been taken of the very serious nature of the crime committed by the applicant – in respect of which the trial courts had dismissed his claim of self-defence – and also of the fact that it was not his first offence. The fact that the applicant had obtained early release was not of relevance in this context. Early release was virtually automatic and unconditional in the Netherlands, whereas an exclusion order could be imposed on the basis of the person’s previous conduct – the serious criminal offence – even if he or she did not pose an actual and immediate threat. The Government did not deny that the applicant had strong ties with the Netherlands, but noted that he had chosen not to opt for Netherlands nationality even though he had been eligible to do so since 1987. They took the view that, having come to the Netherlands at the age of 12, he must still have some ties with his native Turkey. There were, in addition, no insurmountable obstacles to the applicant’s partner and children following him to Turkey, in particular as the children were still very young – much younger in fact than the applicant had been when he first moved to the Netherlands. 51.     Finally, the exclusion order was not of a permanent nature and would be lifted after ten years at the applicant’s request, provided he had not been convicted of further criminal offences and had resided outside the Netherlands for ten years. The applicant would then be able to gain readmission to the Netherlands if he complied with the relevant requirements, namely having sufficient means of existence (120% of the monthly minimum wage) and being able to prove the effectiveness of his family life in the Netherlands. 3.     The third party 52.     In their comments submitted under Article 36 § 2 of the Convention and Rule 44 § 2 (a) of the Rules of Court, the intervening party, the German Government (see paragraph 10 above), pointed out in the first place that the possibility for a State to expel individual aliens – on whom the Convention did not confer a right not to be expelled – was a necessary means by which a State could effectively fulfil its core tasks, namely maintaining and guaranteeing public safety and the protection of its nationals and other aliens residing on its territory. The fact that an alien had been living on the State’s territory for a long time, had perhaps even been born there, and had started a family there did not put him or her on a par with the State’s nationals in terms of rights of residence. 53.     The German Government were further of the view that Article 8 of the Convention did not contain a general requirement that exclusion orders be limited in time. It was for the State to decide when and whether to exclude a foreign national from its territory for ever or for a specific period, so long as it abided by the principles of the rule of law and human rights. Moreover, an expulsion ordered in administrative proceedings following a criminal conviction did not constitute a double punishment, either for the purposes of Article 4 of Protocol No. 7 or “in the humane sense of the term”. Whereas the primary aim of a criminal penalty was to punish a previous criminal wrong, an expulsion order was aimed at guaranteeing public safety in the future without the intention of inflicting a punishment. C.     The Court’s assessment 1.     General principles 54.     The Court reaffirms at the outset that a State is entitled, as a matter of international law and subject to its treaty obligations, to control the entry of aliens into its territory and their residence there (see, among many other authorities, Abdulaziz, Cabales and Balkandali v. the United Kingdom , 28   May 1985, § 67, Series A no. 94, and Boujlifa v. France , 21 October 1997, § 42, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1997 ‑ VI). The Convention does not guarantee the right of an alien to enter or to reside in a particular country and, in pursuance of their task of maintaining public order, Contracting States have the power to expel an alien convicted of criminal offences. However, their decisions in this field must, in so far as they may interfere with a right protected under paragraph 1 of Article 8, be in accordance with the law and necessary in a democratic society, that is to say, justified by a pressing social need and, in particular, proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued (see Dalia v. France , 19 February 1998, § 52, Reports 1998-I; Mehemi v. France , 26 September 1997, § 34, Reports 1997 ‑ VI; Boultif , cited above, § 46; and Slivenko v. Latvia [GC], no.   48321/99, § 113, ECHR 2003-X). 55.     The Court considers that these principles apply regardless of whether an alien entered the host country as an adult or at a very young age, or was perhaps even born there. In this context the Court refers to Recommendation   1504 (2001) on the non ‑ expulsion of long-term immigrants, in which the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe recommended that the Committee of Ministers invite member States, inter alia , to guarantee that long-term migrants who were born or raised in the host country cannot be expelled under any circumstances (see paragraph 37 above). While a number of Contracting States have enacted legislation or adopted policy rules to the effect that long-term immigrants who were born in those States or who arrived there during early childhood cannot be expelled on the basis of their criminal record (see paragraph 39 above), such an absolute right not to be expelled cannot, however, be derived from Article 8 of the Convention, couched, as paragraph 2 of that provision is, in terms which clearly allow for exceptions to be made to the general rights guaranteed in the first paragraph. 56.     The aforementioned Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation also advocates that long-term immigrants, with the exception of the category referred to in paragraph 55 above, who have committed a criminal offence should be subjected to the same ordinary-law procedures and penalties as are applied to nationals and that the “sanction” of expulsion should be applied only to particularly serious offences affecting State security of which they have been found guilty (see paragraph 37 above). The Court considers nevertheless that, even if a non-national holds a very strong residence status and has attained a high degree of integration, his or her position cannot be equated with that of a national when it comes to the above-mentioned power of the Contracting States to expel aliens (see Moustaquim v. Belgium , 18 February 1991, § 49, Series A no. 193) for one or more of the reasons set out in paragraph 2 of Article 8 of the Convention. It is, moreover, of the view that a decision to revoke a residence permit and/or to impose an exclusion order on a settled migrant following a criminal conviction in respect of which that migrant has been sentenced to a criminal-law penalty does not constitute a double punishment, either for the purposes of Article 4 of Protocol No. 7 or more generally. Contracting States are entitled to take measures in relation to persons who have been convicted of criminal offences in order to protect society – provided, of course, that, to the extent that those measures interfere with the rights guaranteed by Article 8, paragraph 1, of the Convention, they are necessary in a democratic society and proportionate to the aim pursued. Such administrative measures are to be seen as preventive rather than punitive in nature (see Maaouia v. France [GC], no. 39652/98, § 39, ECHR 2000-X). 57.     Even if Article 8 of the Convention does not therefore contain an absolute right for any category of alien not to be expelled, the Court’s case ‑ law amply demonstrates that there are circumstances where the expulsion of an alien will give rise to a violation of that provision (see, for example, Moustaquim , cited above; Beldjoudi v. France , 26 March 1992, Series A no. 234-A; and Boultif , cited above; see also Amrollahi v. Denmark , no. 56811/00, 11 July 2002; Yilmaz v. Germany , no. 52853/99, 17   April 2003; and Keles v. Germany , no. 32231/02, 27 October 2005). In Boultif the Court elaborated the relevant criteria which it would use in order to assess whether an expulsion measure was necessary in a democratic society and proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued. These criteria, as reproduced in paragraph 40 of the Chamber judgment in the present case, are the following: –     the nature and seriousness of the offence committed by the applicant; –     the length of the applicant’s stay in the country from which he or she is to be expelled; –     the time elapsed since the offence was committed and the applicant’s conduct during that period; –     the nationalities of the various persons concerned; –     the applicant’s family situation, such as the length of the marriage, and other factors expressing the effectiveness of a couple’s family life; –     whether the spouse knew about the offence at the time when he or she entered into a family relationship; –     whether there are children of the marriage, and if so, their age; and –     the seriousness of the difficulties which the spouse is likely to encounter in the country to which the applicant is to be expelled. 58.     The Court would wish to make explicit two criteria which may already be implicit in those identified in Boultif : –     the best interests and well-being of the children, in particular the seriousness of the difficulties which any children of the applicant are likely to encounter in the country to which the applicant is to be expelled; and –     the solidity of social, cultural and family ties with the host country and with the country of destination. As to the first point, the Court notes that this is already reflected in its existing case-law (see, for example, Şen v. the Netherlands , no. 31465/96, §   40, 21 December 2001, and Tuquabo-Tekle and Others v. the Netherlands , no.   60665/00, § 47, 1 December 2005) and is in line with the Committee of Ministers Recommendation Rec(2002)4 on the legal status of persons admitted for family reunification (see paragraph 38 above). As to the second point, it is to be noted that, although the applicant in Boultif was already an adult when he entered Switzerland, the Court has held the “ Boultif criteria” to apply all the more so ( à plus forte raison ) to cases concerning applicants who were born in the host country or who moved there at an early age (see Mokrani v. France , no. 52206/99, § 31, 15   July 2003). Indeed, the rationale behind making the duration of a person’s stay in the host country one of the elements to be taken into account lies in the assumption that the longer a person has been residing in a particular country, the stronger his or her ties with that country and the weaker the ties with the country of his or her nationality will be. Seen against that background, it is self-evident that the Court will have regard to the special situation of aliens who have spent most, if not all, their childhood in the host country, were brought up there and received their education there. 59.     The Court considered itself called upon to establish “guiding principles” in Boultif because it had “only a limited number of decided cases where the main obstacle to expulsion was that it would entail difficulties for the spouses to stay together and, in particular, for one of them and/or the children to live in the other’s country of origin” (ibid., § 48). It is to be noted, however, that the first three guiding principles do not, as such, relate to family life. This leads the Court to consider whether the “ Boultif criteria” are sufficiently comprehensive to render them suitable for application in all cases concerning the expulsion and/or exclusion of settled migrants following a criminal conviction. It observes in this context that not all such migrants, no matter how long they have been residing in the country from which they are to be expelled, necessarily enjoy “family life” there within the meaning of Article 8. However, as Article 8 also protects the right to establish and develop relationships with other human beings and the outside world (see Pretty v. the United Kingdom , no. 2346/02, § 61, ECHR 2002 ‑ III) and can sometimes embrace aspects of an individual’s social identity (see Mikulić v. Croatia , no. 53176/99, § 53, ECHR 2002-I), it must be accepted that the totality of social ties between settled migrants and the community in which they are living constitute part of the concept of “private life” within the meaning of Article 8. Regardless of the existence or otherwise of a “family life”, therefore, the Court considers that the expulsion of a settled migrant constitutes interference with his or her right to respect for private life. It will depend on the circumstances of the particular case whether it is appropriate for the Court to focus on the “family life” rather than the “private life” aspect. 60.     In the light of the foregoing, the Court conc