CEDH · CASELAW;JUDGMENTS;GRANDCHAMBER;ENG — 29 juin 2007

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display:inline-block } .s379BC09C { margin-top:36pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:right } .sA6BC7FA7 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:right } .s5E1364CA { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-align:center; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:14pt } .s865A0202 { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:36.6pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:-15.05pt; text-align:justify; widows:0; orphans:0 } .sF6A12959 { width:33%; height:1px; text-align:left } .s85226119 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt } .s3133A7C8 { font-family:Arial; color:#0069d6 }     GRAND CHAMBER             CASE OF FOLGERØ AND OTHERS v. NORWAY   (Application no. 15472/02)                     JUDGMENT     STRASBOURG   29 June 2007       In the case of Folgerø and Others v. Norway, The European Court of Human Rights, sitting as a Grand Chamber composed of:   Jean-Paul Costa, President ,   Luzius Wildhaber,   Christos Rozakis,   Boštjan M. Zupančič,   Peer Lorenzen,   Françoise Tulkens,   Corneliu Bîrsan,   Nina Vajić,   Margarita Tsatsa-Nikolovska,   Anatoly Kovler,   Vladimiro Zagrebelsky,   Elisabeth Steiner,   Javier Borrego Borrego,   Khanlar Hajiyev,   Dean Spielmann,   Sverre Erik Jebens,   Ineta Ziemele, judges , and Vincent Berger, jurisconsult , Having deliberated in private on 6 December 2006 and on 9 May 2007, Delivers the following judgment, which was adopted on the last-mentioned date: PROCEDURE 1.     The case originated in an application (no. 15472/02) against the Kingdom of Norway lodged with the Court under Article 34 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) on 15 February 2002 by nine Norwegian nationals (“the applicants”): Mrs Ingebjørg Folgerø, Mr Geir Tyberø and their son, Gaute   A. Tyberø; Mrs Gro Larsen, Mr Arne Nytræ and their two sons, Adrian and Colin Nytræ; and Mrs Carolyn Midsem and her son, Eivind T. Fosse. The applicant parents are members of the Norwegian Humanist Association ( Human-Etisk Forbund ). Initially the Association had also joined the application, but it subsequently withdrew. 2.     The applicants were represented by Mr L. Stavrum, a lawyer practising in Lillehammer. At the written stage of the proceedings the Norwegian Government (“the Government”) were represented by their Agent, Mrs E. Holmedal, Attorney, Attorney-General’s Office (Civil Matters). 3.     The present case concerns complaints lodged by non-Christian parents. It relates, firstly, to a complaint under Article 9 of the Convention and Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 concerning refusals by the domestic authorities to grant their children full exemption from a compulsory subject in Christianity, religion and philosophy (“the KRL subject” – see paragraph   16 below) taught during the ten-year compulsory schooling in Norway. Secondly, it concerns their complaint about discrimination contrary to Article 14 of the Convention taken in conjunction with the above-mentioned provisions and Article 8. 4.     The application was first allocated to the Third Section of the Court (Rule   52 § 1 of the Rules of Court), which on 26 October 2004 decided to strike the application out of its list of cases in so far as the Humanist Association was concerned and to declare parts of the application inadmissible. Thereafter the application was allocated to the First Section. On 14 February 2006 it was declared partly admissible by a Chamber of that Section composed of Christos Rozakis, Loukis Loucaides, Françoise Tulkens, Elisabeth Steiner, Khanlar Hajiyev, Dean Spielmann, Sverre Erik Jebens, judges, and Søren Nielsen, Section Registrar. On 18 May 2006 a Chamber of that Section composed of Christos Rozakis, Françoise Tulkens, Anatoly Kovler, Elisabeth Steiner, Khanlar Hajiyev, Dean Spielmann, Sverre Erik Jebens, judges, and Søren Nielsen, Section Registrar, relinquished jurisdiction in favour of the Grand Chamber, none of the parties having objected to relinquishment (Article 30 of the Convention and Rule 72). 5.     The composition of the Grand Chamber was determined according to Article 27 §§ 2 and 3 of the Convention and Rule 24. Luzius Wildhaber, whose term of office expired after presiding over the hearing, continued to participate in the examination of the case (Article 23 § 7). 6.     A hearing took place in public in the Human Rights Building, Strasbourg, on 6 December 2006 (Rule 59 § 3).   There appeared before the Court:   (a)     for the Government Ms   T. Steen , Attorney, Attorney-General’s Office   (Civil Matters),   Agent , Ms   E. Holmedal , Attorney, Attorney-General’s Office   (Civil Matters),   Mr   G. Mandt , Director, Ministry of Education and Research,   Mr   B. Gjefsen , Senior Adviser, Ministry of Education and   Research,     Advisers ;   (b)     for the applicants Mr   L. Stavrum , Advokat ,   Counsel , Mr   K. Rognlien , Advokat ,   Mrs   B. Sandvig , Mrs   T. Nikolaisen ,   Advisers .   The Court heard addresses by Mr Stavrum and Ms Steen.   THE FACTS I.     THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE CASE 7.     The present application was lodged by parents, who are members of the Norwegian Humanist Association ( Human-Etisk Forbund ), and their children, who were primary-school pupils at the time of the events complained of in the present case: Mrs Ingebjørg Folgerø (born in 1960), Mr Geir Tyberø (born in 1956) and their son, Gaute A. Tyberø (born in 1987); Mrs Gro Larsen (born in 1966), Mr Arne Nytræ (born in 1963) and their two sons, Adrian Nytræ (born in 1987) and Colin Nytræ (born in 1990); Mrs Carolyn Midsem (born in 1953) and her son, Eivind T. Fosse (born in 1987). Initially the Association had also joined the application, but it subsequently withdrew. 8.     On 26 October 2004 the Court struck the application out in so far as it concerned the Association and declared the application inadmissible on grounds of non-exhaustion in respect of the applicant children (for which reason, the term “applicants” used elsewhere in the present judgment refers to the applicant parents). The Court moreover observed that, while the applicant parents had complained under the Convention in particular about the absence of a right to full exemption from the KRL subject (see paragraph 16 below), they had also challenged before the Court the limited possibilities and the modalities for obtaining partial exemption. However, as can be seen from the Supreme Court’s judgment, the applicant parents’ lawsuit and appeal to the Supreme Court had been directed against the KRL subject and its implementation generally. The Supreme Court found no ground for determining whether the teaching of the appellants’ children had occurred in a manner which violated the relevant human rights treaties. In the light of the foregoing, the Court found that the applicant parents had failed to exhaust domestic remedies as required by Article 35 § 1 of the Convention in respect of their complaint about the possibilities and modalities for obtaining partial exemption from the KRL subject and declared this part of the parents’ application inadmissible. In its subsequent decision on admissibility of 14 February 2006, the Court held that, in its examination of the issue regarding full exemption, the above limitations on the scope of the case that followed from the decision of 26 October 2004 did not prevent it from considering the general aspects of the partial-exemption arrangement, notably in the context of the parents’ complaint under Article 14 of the Convention. A.     Factual background to the present case 9.     Norway has a State religion and a State Church, of which 86% of the population are members. Article 2 of the Constitution provides: “Everyone residing in the Kingdom shall enjoy freedom of religion. The Evangelical Lutheran Religion remains the State’s official religion. Residents who subscribe to it are obliged to educate their children likewise.” 10.     Instruction in the Christian faith has been part of the Norwegian school curriculum since 1739. From 1889 onwards members of religious communities other than the Church of Norway were entitled to be exempted in whole or in part from the teaching of the Christian faith. 1.     The former Compulsory School Act 1969 11.     In connection with the enactment of the former Compulsory School Act 1969 ( lov om grunnskolen , 13 June 1969, no. 24, hereafter referred to as “the 1969 Act”), Parliament decided that teaching of the Christian faith should be dissociated from the baptismal instruction of the Church and aimed at teaching the main content of the history of the Bible, the principal events in Church history and basic knowledge of the Evangelical Lutheran Faith for children (section 7(4) of the Act). 12.     Under the “Christian object clause” ( den kristne formålsparagraf ) in section 1 of the Act: “Primary school shall, with the understanding and cooperation of the home, assist in giving pupils a Christian and moral education and in developing their abilities, spiritual as well as physical, and giving them good general knowledge so that they can become useful and independent human beings at home and in society. School shall promote spiritual freedom and tolerance, and place emphasis on creating good conditions for cooperation between teachers and pupils and between the school and the home.” 13.     Teachers were required to teach in accordance with the Evangelical Lutheran faith (section 18(3), added in 1971). 14.     In accordance with section 12(6) of the 1969 Act, children of parents who were not members of the Church of Norway were entitled, upon the parents’ request, to be exempted in whole or in part from lessons on the Christian faith. Pupils who had been exempted could be offered alternative lessons in philosophy. 2.     Reform 15.     Between 1993 and 1997 a process of reform of compulsory primary and secondary school took place. In the spring of 1993 Parliament decided to bring the school starting age forward from the age of seven to six and the next spring it extended compulsory school attendance from nine to ten   years. A new curriculum was presented to Parliament. The majority of the Parliamentary Committee for Church Affairs, Education and Research proposed that Christianity, other religions and philosophy be taught together. It emphasised the importance of ensuring an open and inclusive school environment, irrespective of the pupils’ social background, religious creed, nationality, sex, ethnic group or functional ability. School should be a meeting place for all views. Pupils having different religious and philosophical convictions should meet others and gain knowledge about each other’s thoughts and traditions. School should not be an arena for preaching or missionary activities. It was noted that since 1969 teaching of the Christian faith had been dissociated from the State Church’s baptismal instruction. The subject should give knowledge and insight but should not be a tool for religious preaching. The Committee’s majority further considered that guidelines for exemptions should be worked out in order to achieve a uniform practice and that minority groups should be consulted. Exemptions should be limited to parts of the subject, especially material of a confessional character and participation in rituals. 16.     Subsequently, a white paper ( St.meld. nr. 14 for 1995-96) on Christianity, religion and philosophy ( kristendomskunnskap med religions- og livssynsorientering , hereafter referred to as “the KRL subject”) was presented, in which the Ministry of Church Affairs, Education and Research ( Kirke-, utdannings- og forskningsdepartementet ; as from 1 January 2002 the Ministry of Education and Research ( Utdannings- og forskningsdepartementet ) – hereafter “the Ministry”) indicated the following guidelines for making exemptions: “No pupil should feel that being exempted is unpleasant or a stigma; No pupil should be pressurised to stand out as a representative of a specific philosophy of life and the school should therefore display great caution in class or at the school in its handling of a request for exemption; It should not be automatic for certain pupils to be exempted from certain parts of the syllabus; If the circumstances lend themselves to it and the parents/pupil so wish, the background and reasons for an exemption can be taken up in the lessons. An exemption does not mean a freedom to be ignorant ...” 17.     The majority of the above-mentioned parliamentary committee endorsed the curriculum in the main and pointed out that Christianity should form the central part of the KRL subject ( Innst.s.nr 103 for 1995-96). It further stated: “The majority would also underline that the teaching should not be value-neutral. The aim that the teaching should not be preaching should never be interpreted to mean that it should occur in a religious/ethical vacuum. All teaching and education in our primary schools shall take the school’s object clause as a starting point and, within this subject, Christianity, other religions and philosophy shall be presented according to their own special features. The subject should place emphasis on the teaching of Christianity.” 18.     A minority of one proposed that, for all primary-school pupils, there should be a right to full exemption from the KRL subject and to alternative teaching. 19.     In the course of preparing the amendments to the law, the Ministry commissioned Mr E. Møse, then a High Court Judge, to make an assessment of compulsory education in the KRL subject from the angle of Norway’s obligations under public international law. In his report of 22   January 1997, he concluded: “The object clause of the Primary School Act, whether taken alone or together with Article 2 of the Constitution and other special rules on the Church and schools, does not provide a basis for establishing that the teaching of Christianity under the new syllabus will of legal necessity become preaching, educative or influential in favour of the Evangelical Lutheran Religion. The legislature may choose to make provision for education in the form of preaching to pupils who are of this creed, but not to others. That would be inconsistent with our international obligations and Article 110c of the Constitution on the protection of human rights. What emerges, from a legal point of view, from the somewhat unclear concept of ‘confessional basis’, is that a natural consequence of the State Church system is that the legislator lets instruction in religion or philosophy include the Evangelical Lutheran thoughts, not other forms of Christianity. The law on the new subject, which includes a part on Christianity, has opted for this. ... The solution has been opted for because the majority of the population in Norway is affiliated to this creed. It is evidently motivated by objective reasons. It cannot be ruled out by human rights treaties, provided that the teaching is otherwise pluralistic, neutral and objective.” 20.     As regards the issue of exemption from the KRL subject, Mr Møse stated: “In the situation as it emerges I find that a general right of exemption would be the safest option. This would mean that international review bodies would not undertake a closer examination of thorny questions that compulsory education raises. However, I cannot say that a partial exemption would violate the conventions, provided that the operation of the system falls within the framework of the relevant treaty obligations. A lot would depend on the further legislative process and the manner of implementation of the subject.” 21.     Sections 7 and 13 of the 1969 Act were amended by an Act of 19   June 1997 (no. 83), which came into effect on 1 July 1997. The new provisions, plus an object clause similar to section 1 of the former 1969 Act, were subsequently included in sections 2-4 and 1-2 respectively of the Education Act 1998 ( Lov om grunnskolen og den videregående opplæring av 17. juli 1998 nr. 61 – “the Education Act 1998”), which came into force on 1 August 1999. 22.     Section 1-2(1) provided: “The object of primary and lower secondary education shall be, in agreement and cooperation with the home, to help give pupils a Christian and moral upbringing, to develop their mental and physical abilities, and to give them good general knowledge so that they may become useful and independent human beings at home and in society.” 23.     Section 2-4 read: “Instruction in Christianity, religion and philosophy shall (i)     transmit thorough knowledge of the Bible and Christianity in the form of cultural heritage and the Evangelical Lutheran Faith; (ii)     transmit knowledge of other Christian communities; (iii)     transmit knowledge of other world religions and philosophies, and ethical and philosophical subjects; (iv)     promote understanding and respect for Christian and humanist values; and (v)     promote understanding, respect and the ability to maintain a dialogue between people with different perceptions of beliefs and convictions. Instruction in Christianity, religion and philosophy is an ordinary school subject, which should normally bring together all pupils. The subject shall not be taught in a preaching manner. A person who teaches Christianity, religion and philosophy shall take as a starting point the object clause in section 1-2 and should present Christianity, the different religions and philosophy from the standpoint of their particular characteristics. The same pedagogical principles shall apply to the teaching of the different topics. A pupil shall, on the submission of a written parental note, be granted exemption from those parts of the teaching in the particular school concerned that they, from the point of view of their own religion or philosophy of life, consider as amounting to the practice of another religion or adherence to another philosophy of life. This may concern, inter alia , religious activities within or outside the classroom. In the event of a parental note requesting exemption, the school shall as far as possible seek to find solutions by facilitating differentiated teaching within the school curriculum.” 24.     From the travaux préparatoires it can be seen that the expression “religious activities” was meant to cover, for example, prayers, psalms, the learning of religious texts by heart and the participation in plays of a religious nature. 25.     In accordance with a circular by the Ministry of 10 July 1997 (F ‑ 90 ‑ 97), a parental note to the school requesting exemption should contain reasons setting out what they considered amounted to practice of another religion or adherence to another philosophy of life. The pupil should be granted an exemption after the parents had specified the reasons. If the request was rejected, the parents had a right of appeal to the State Education Office in the county concerned. The appeal was sent via the school, which then had an opportunity to alter its decision. 26.     The requirement of giving reasons was further specified in a ministerial circular of 12 January 1998 (F-03-98), according to which no reasons were required for making an exemption from clearly religious activities. Beyond that, with regard to matters falling outside the main rule for making exemptions, stricter requirements applied in respect of reasons. 27.     In connection with the preparation of the KRL subject, associations representing minority convictions expressed strong objections, notably that the subject was dominated by Evangelical Lutheran Christianity and contained elements of preaching. The Norwegian Humanist Association commented, inter alia , that the subject had a confessional basis ( konfesjonsforankring ) and that the possibility foreseen for obtaining exemption from only parts of the subject was inadequate. At its national congress in May 1997 the Association decided to invite Parliament to reject the government’s proposal to limit the right of exemption. 28.     From autumn 1997 the KRL subject was gradually introduced into the primary-school curriculum, replacing the subject of Christianity and philosophy of life. During the school year 1999/2000, the subject was introduced at all levels. 3.     Evaluations of the KRL subject 29.     On 18 October 2000 the Ministry issued a press release about the completion of two evaluation reports on the KRL subject, one entitled “Parents’, pupils’ and teachers’ experiences with the KRL subject” ( Foreldres, elevers og læreres erfaringer med KRL-faget ), provided by Norsk Lærerakademi, the other entitled “A subject for every taste? An evaluation of the KRL subject” ( Et fag for enhever smak? En evaluering av KRL-faget ) by the Høgskulen i Volda and Diaforsk. Parliament had requested that a survey of the implementation of the exemption rules be prepared after a three-year period. Both reports concluded that the partial-exemption arrangement was not working as intended and should therefore be thoroughly reviewed. The second report listed the following “Main conclusions”: “In this part of our report we have discussed whether there is concordance between KRL’s intentions, principles and exemption schemes on the one hand and its practical implementation in schools nationwide on the other, and whether parental rights can be said to be ensured when the teaching and exemption scheme are organised the way they are. The perspective of parental rights, which is central to the project’s mandate, has made it necessary to focus especially on the experiences various groups of parents have had with the subject and with the exemption scheme. All things considered it should be said that the great majority of the parents we have been in contact with, who belong to the Church of Norway, are satisfied with the subject or have no strong opinions about it. However we have found powerful resistance to important aspects of the subject among other groups of parents. The lasting antipathy to the subject from parents belonging to religious/faith minorities means that KRL can hardly be said to integrate and include as intended. The principal and empirical surveys provide grounds for the following main conclusions: 1.     There is broad agreement among parents that it is important to have some common teaching in the subject concerning different religions and beliefs, but there is no agreement about •     what the contents and objectives of the common teaching should be; •     in which year the pupils should be taught about religions other than their own. 2.     In practice some of the subject’s intentions are ensured at all surveyed schools, but at none of them are all the fundamental intentions ensured. Deficient implementation of the central intentions underlying the subject can be explained by •     tensions in the subject description itself and between the various intentions underlying the subject, making it difficult to implement; •     lack of resources and problems with implementation presuppose changes at schools. 3.     The current exemption scheme does not work so that parental rights are ensured in practice. This is due to the following reasons among others: •     the information schools give about the exemption scheme is in many ways not suited to safeguarding the possibility of exemption; •     the information given about KRL classes is of too general a nature for parents to be able to notify their intention regarding an exemption. For example, information about working methods is hardly ever given. Besides, the lesson plans generally come too late for parents to have a practical opportunity of asking for an exemption; •     schools interpret the exemption regulations too strictly compared with the clarifications given both by Parliament and the Ministry. For instance, an exemption is often granted only in respect of those activities which are ‘clearly religious activities’. Furthermore several schools report attitudes which give the impression that it is practically impossible to be granted an exemption; •     schools offer very little differentiated teaching to pupils who are to be exempted from parts of the subject, and pupils with an exemption mostly sit passively in the classroom; •     in addition, a number of parents from minority-language backgrounds do not have the language competence necessary to exercise their rights even though they would like an exemption. In many cases this causes distrust in school/home relations. A considerable number of parents from minority backgrounds say they want full exemption but will not apply because they are afraid of a conflict with the school that may harm their children; •     the integration of themes and subjects helps KRL become invisible in the timetable so that in practice it is very difficult to ask for an exemption. 4.     Changes should be made which still ensure some teaching for the whole class, while ensuring parental rights in practice. This only seems possible under certain conditions. •     Arrangements should be made in order to facilitate teaching about the different religions and beliefs and promote dialogue and mutual respect in some tuition for the whole class. Efforts should probably be made to have flexible models that can be adjusted to the special conditions prevailing for lower primary, upper primary and lower secondary levels respectively in different parts of the country and for different groups of pupils; •     Considering the problems we can now see at several schools, it should be possible to provide for full exemption. This would be the safest solution in respect of international conventions and probably also the one that in the long run would be best suited to ensuring support and legitimacy for a subject that is focused on religion and belief. We have established that the variations we have found in teaching in different parts of the country, at some schools and in different classes, give us reason to ask if KRL is one or more than one new subject.” B.     Judicial proceedings brought by some of the applicants 30.     In the meantime, on 14 March 1998 the Norwegian Humanist Association, together with eight sets of parents who were members of the Association and whose children went to primary school, brought proceedings before Oslo City Court ( byrett ) on account of administrative refusals of the parents’ applications for full exemption from the teaching of the KRL subject. They claimed that the refusal of full exemption violated the parents’ and the children’s rights under Article 9 of the Convention and Article 2 of Protocol No. 1, taken on their own or in conjunction with Article 14. They also relied on, amongst other provisions, Articles 18 and   26 of the 1966 United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Article 13 § 3 of the 1966 United Nations International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. 31.     By a judgment of 16 April 1999, the City Court rejected the State’s objection that the Association lacked a legal interest and hence did not have legal standing. However, on the substantive issues the City Court found for the State and rejected the claim. 32.     The Association and the parents appealed to the Borgarting High Court ( lagmannsrett ), which by a judgment of 6 October 2000 upheld the City Court’s judgment. 33.     On a further appeal by the applicants, the Supreme Court ( Høyesterett ), by a judgment of 22 August 2001, unanimously dismissed the appeal in so far as it concerned the Association on the ground that it lacked a legal interest sufficient to have standing in the case. In so far as it concerned the other appellants, it unanimously dismissed their appeal and upheld the High Court’s judgment. 34.     In his reasoning, approved in the main by the other four Justices sitting in the case, the first voting judge, Mr Justice Stang Lund, stated from the outset that “[the] case concerns the validity of the administrative decisions rejecting the parents’ applications for full exemption for their children from the primary and secondary school (KRL) subject”. He defined the issue to be determined as being “whether instruction in the [KRL] subject with a limited right to exemption [was] contrary to Norway’s international legal obligations to protect, inter alia , freedom of religion and belief”. 35.     Thereafter, Mr Justice Stang Lund undertook an extensive analysis of the legislative history and the position under international human rights law, notably the relevant provisions and case-law of the European Convention and the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (“the ICCPR”). Dealing in turn with each of the relevant provisions of the Education Act 1998, Mr Justice Stang Lund made the following observations about the Christian object clause in section 1-2(1). “The object clause applies to all teaching in primary and lower secondary schools. The provision is a general one, and its scope may be difficult to determine. It may raise questions relating to the conventions’ provisions regarding freedom of religion and parental rights; see Judge Møse, pages 35 et seq. of Proposition No. 38 (1996-97) to the Odelsting [the larger division of Parliament]. As far as the KRL subject is concerned, the provision must be viewed in conjunction with section 2-4(2), which establishes that this subject is an ordinary school subject for all pupils, and that instruction in the subject shall not involve preaching. The object clause must be interpreted and applied in such a way that it does not conflict with the conventions that have been incorporated pursuant to section 2 (see also section 3) of the Human Rights Act. As a result of changes and amendments in subject syllabuses and national standard curricula over time, the expression ‘Christian and moral upbringing’ must be interpreted as meaning that Christian and humanist values are to be viewed in conjunction with each other. Both the Christian and the humanist traditions underscore the importance of truth, human dignity, charity, democracy and human rights. These are values common to almost everyone in Norway, regardless of religion or philosophy of life. The conventions do not require that teaching in schools must be value neutral; see the judgment of the European Court of Human Rights in the case of Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen v. Denmark (7 December 1976, § 53, Series A no. 23). The object clause establishes that all school education shall take place in cooperation and agreement with the home. Any effort by primary and lower secondary school teachers to help give pupils a Christian upbringing can only be made with the parents’ consent and in cooperation with the home. Interpreted in this way, the provision is not incompatible with Article 9 of the European Convention and Article 18 §§ 1 to 3 of the ICCPR regarding freedom of thought, conscience and religion or with Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 to the European Convention and Article 18 § 4 of the ICCPR regarding parents. The reference to the object clause in section   2 ‑ 4(3) which prescribes that teachers of the KRL subject shall take the Christian object clause of the primary and lower secondary school as their point of departure thus has no independent significance for the issue of whether there is a violation of the conventions.” 36.     As regards section 2-4(1) to (3) of the Education Act 1998, Mr   Justice Stang Lund stated as follows. “The appellants have emphasised that the Act requires the teaching to give pupils a thorough knowledge of the Bible and of Christianity in the form of cultural heritage and the Evangelical Lutheran Faith, while it merely requires knowledge of other world religions, beliefs and ethical and philosophical topics. I refer to the fact that it may be inferred from the practice of the European Court of Human Rights that the States Parties themselves decide the scope and content of teaching; see Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen , cited above, § 53, and Valsamis v. Greece , 18 December 1996, § 28, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996 ‑ VI. Thus, Article 9 of the ECHR and Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 do not preclude compulsory instruction in the content of various religions and beliefs and in the history of religions and ethics, provided that such instruction is given in an objective, critical and pluralistic manner. In this respect, I refer to my earlier review and summary of the decisions and comments of the convention bodies. The compulsory instruction must cover different religions and beliefs. The greater emphasis placed in section 2-4(1) on knowledge of Christianity than on knowledge of other religions and beliefs is, in my opinion, within the limit of the discretion accorded by the conventions to the States Parties. The requirement that compulsory instruction must be objective, critical and pluralistic cannot be interpreted as meaning that there must be a specific, proportional division of instruction between different religions and different philosophies of life. In the light of the history, culture and traditions of the individual State Party, it must be acceptable for certain religions or beliefs to be more dominant than others. Indoctrination or other preaching of a specific religion or a specific philosophy of life will be contrary to the European Convention and the ICCPR; see Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen , cited above, § 53, and Valsamis , cited above, § 28, and point 6 of the comment of the UN Human Rights Committee of 20 July 1993. Accordingly, section 2-4(2) of the Education Act prescribes that instruction in the KRL subject shall not involve preaching. The appellants, supported, inter alia , by Judge Møse’s report (page 29 of Proposition no. 38 (1996-97) to the Odelsting ), have argued that instruction that communicates a specific religious view in a way that is liable to influence pupils to adopt a specific faith is also a violation of the convention provisions regarding freedom of religion and parental rights. I agree that such communication might involve a violation. However, the expression ‘liable to’ may be interpreted in such a way as to give it greater scope than that which it derives from the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights. I shall therefore keep to the criteria that have been developed in the Court’s practice. In connection with the introduction of the KRL subject, the travaux préparatoires show that the Ministry and the majority of Parliament were extremely concerned to emphasise that the subject was to be an ordinary school subject for all pupils. This has been expressly stated in the wording of the Act; see section 2-4(2), first sentence. The legislator has also stated that the KRL subject shall be a subject designed to provide knowledge; see, for instance, page 6, second column, and page 10 of Proposition no. 38 (1996-97) to the Odelsting . Section   2-4(3) provides that Christianity, other religions and philosophies of life shall be presented on the basis of their distinctive characteristics. On the other hand, the Parliament’s Standing Committee on Education, Research and Church Affairs stated that instruction shall not be value neutral; see page 4 of Recommendation no. 103 (1995-96) to Parliament. This in itself cannot be contrary to the conventions since, as I have established earlier, neither the ECHR nor the ICCPR is interpreted as meaning that instruction shall be neutral as regards values.” 37.     As to section 2-4(4) of the Education Act 1998, Mr Justice Stang Lund held that, if interpreted against the background of the relevant provisions of the Convention and the ICCPR and section 3 of the Human Rights Act, it must be understood to the effect that pupils had a right to be exempted and that their parents had no obligation to let their children follow lessons on religion and philosophy regarded as preaching or indoctrinating in the sense of those treaties. The children could therefore be absent from such classes. The question as to how large a part of the syllabus would be affected in this way would have to be decided in each concrete case depending on how the teaching was planned and implemented. In the view of Mr Justice Stang Lund, the provision on exemption was not contrary to any requirements pertaining to religious freedom and parental rights. The Convention requirement that the teaching should be objective, critical and pluralistic did not preclude compulsory education in the content of the different religions and philosophies of life or giving a particular religion or philosophy, in view of the Contracting State’s history, culture and traditions, a more prominent place than others. As already mentioned, the Education Act 1998 provided that the subject should be an ordinary school subject. According to the preparatory documents, it was to be a knowledge-based subject. The Act required that the teaching be neutral and not preaching. Therefore it did not appear that the provisions in section 2-4 regarding the contents of the teaching were contrary to the Convention . 38.     Mr Justice Stang Lund further considered the parts of the school curriculum (the Ten-Year Compulsory Schooling Curriculum, issued by the Ministry in 1999, referred to below as “the Curriculum”) that, in the appellants’ submission, gave preference to the Christian faith and influenced pupils to opt for Christianity. In relation to Norway’s international obligations, the Curriculum, which had its legal basis in sections 2-6 and   2 ‑ 8 of the Education Act 1998 and the relevant regulation of 28 June 1999, had the same legal status as other regulations. However, he observed, what mattered was that pupils gained understanding of the plurality of convictions and thoughts, and that the teaching did not present one faith as being superior to others. It ought to be acceptable, in the light of a Contracting State’s history, culture and traditions, that one or more religions or philosophies of life be given a more prominent place than others. 39.     As to the appellants’ objections to influencing pupils through the use of pictures, songs, drama, music and stories from the Bible and religious texts, Mr Justice Stang Lund found that it ought to be possible to impart neutrally to pupils the traditions and “means of transmitting knowledge” ( måte å formidle på ) of the various religions without running counter to international human rights law. The Curriculum placed emphasis on openness, insight, respect and dialogue and on the promotion of understanding and tolerance in discussion of religious and moral issues and forbade preaching. Within the framework of the Curriculum, the teaching of the KRL subject could be carried out without any conflict with the relevant provisions of international human rights law. 40.     As to the appellants’ argument that the school manuals, notably volumes   2, 3, 5 and 6 of Bridges , amounted to preaching and were capable of influencing the pupils, Mr Justice Stang Lund observed that, while several definitions of problems and formulations used in Bridges could be understood as if the Christian faith provided the answer to ethical and moral questions, no further information had been submitted to the Supreme Court as to how the teaching in relation to this material had been planned and implemented. 41.     In this context Mr Justice Stang Lund noted that the appellants’ lawsuit and appeal to the Supreme Court had been directed against the KRL subject and its implementation generally. The arguments and evidence adduced in relation to each decision to refuse full exemption had been aimed a