CEDH · CASELAW;JUDGMENTS;CHAMBER;ENG — 18 avril 2013

.s800EAC49 { font-size:12pt } .sFE10DC93 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:center } .sBB9EE52A { font-family:Arial } .s29100277 { font-family:Arial; font-weight:bold } .sA36B60A1 { font-family:Arial; font-style:italic } .s598389FB { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:center; font-size:14pt } .sF5E1C6CF { font-family:Arial; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:#ff0000 } .s85A66119 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:justify; font-size:14pt } .sE208486F { font-family:Arial; color:#ff0000 } .s2E932ED2 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; font-size:11pt } .s4ACA9207 { page-break-before:always; clear:both; mso-break-type:section-break } .s10950C61 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .s32563E28 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt } .sBA727180 { width:35.3pt; display:inline-block } .sEC177689 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:36pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .s967D43C6 { margin-top:36pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:14pt } .s87F05BA2 { margin-top:12pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .sC443675D { margin-top:36pt; margin-bottom:30pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:14pt } .sD2857263 { margin-top:30pt; margin-left:17.85pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:-17.85pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s401C450A { margin-top:12pt; margin-bottom:18pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .s7EE1C8F0 { margin-top:18pt; margin-left:29.2pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:-17.6pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s11869A80 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:18pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .s684F2214 { margin-top:18pt; margin-left:29.2pt; margin-bottom:24pt; text-indent:-17.6pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s25BD2B45 { margin-top:24pt; margin-left:36.6pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:-15.05pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s984A15CA { margin-top:6pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .sD5DF731 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .sC702907E { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:36.6pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:-15.05pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .sEC2CB098 { margin-top:6pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .sB1BD30C0 { margin-top:6pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:24pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt } .s57221CB1 { margin-top:24pt; margin-left:17.85pt; margin-bottom:30pt; text-indent:-17.85pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s90647315 { margin-top:30pt; margin-left:29.2pt; margin-bottom:24pt; text-indent:-17.6pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s8F4EE4B8 { margin-top:6pt; margin-bottom:18pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .s1913A4C6 { margin-top:6pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .sC31874BD { margin-top:24pt; margin-left:29.2pt; margin-bottom:24pt; text-indent:-17.6pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .sA1CDB767 { margin-top:6pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt } .s988F61DE { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:18pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt } .s21F08A35 { margin-top:18pt; margin-left:36.6pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:-15.05pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s33C53B69 { margin-top:24pt; margin-left:36.6pt; margin-bottom:18pt; text-indent:-15.05pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s360DA689 { margin-top:18pt; margin-left:48.75pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:-17pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:10pt } .s8378218E { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:48.75pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:-17pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:10pt } .s1B0D0B53 { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:10pt } .s281358E1 { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt } .sFD4D42B6 { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt } .s6477A72F { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .s9D48DD53 { margin-top:6pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt } .s20FC8552 { font-family:Arial; font-size:11.5pt } .s8A9F351B { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:24pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt } .s804EF768 { margin-top:24pt; margin-left:29.2pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:-17.6pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s507703F { margin-top:12pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .sD1F936F5 { margin-top:6pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:10pt } .sE007C52A { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:10pt } .s3B3A5DE9 { margin-top:12pt; margin-bottom:36pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .sB6F98828 { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:36.6pt; margin-bottom:18pt; text-indent:-15.05pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .sCA71A5BA { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:59.5pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:-17.85pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:10pt } .s9F223FEE { margin-top:18pt; margin-left:17.85pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:-17.85pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s56E27C8 { margin-top:6pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:24pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:10pt } .sC1F0960A { margin-top:24pt; margin-left:29.2pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:-17.6pt; text-align:justify; page-break-after:avoid } .sAB173E38 { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:17pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:-17pt; text-align:justify } .s127C7598 { margin-top:0pt; margin-left:17pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:-17pt; text-align:justify } .sD66C1369 { margin-top:0pt; margin-left:17.3pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:justify } .s60723A49 { margin-top:0pt; margin-left:39.7pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:justify } .s81CCF55C { margin-top:0pt; margin-left:17pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:-17pt; text-align:justify } .s48DB3670 { margin-top:12pt; margin-bottom:36pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s7CB9076 { margin-top:36pt; margin-bottom:0pt; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s507451D6 { width:4.53pt; display:inline-block } .sF4F12EF6 { width:180.75pt; display:inline-block } .s7602FED2 { width:18.21pt; display:inline-block } .sC1AC44A4 { width:228.11pt; display:inline-block }       FIRST SECTION           CASE OF AZIMOV v. RUSSIA   (Application no. 67474/11)             JUDGMENT     STRASBOURG   18 April 2013     FINAL   09/09/2013   This judgment has become final under Article 44 § 2 of the Convention. It may be subject to editorial revision. In the case of Azimov v. Russia, The European Court of Human Rights (Chamber), sitting as a Chamber composed of:   Isabelle Berro-Lefèvre, President,   Elisabeth Steiner,   Khanlar Hajiyev,   Linos-Alexandre Sicilianos,   Erik Møse,   Ksenija Turković,   Dmitry Dedov, judges, and Søren Nielsen, Section Registrar, Having deliberated in private on 26 March 2013, Delivers the following judgment, which was adopted on that date: PROCEDURE 1.     The case originated in an application (no. 67474/11) against the Russian Federation lodged with the Court under Article 34 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) by a Tajikistani national, Mr Ismon Sharofovich Azimov (“the applicant”), on 31 October 2011. 2.     The applicant was represented by Ms D. Trenina, a lawyer practising in Moscow, and Ms E. Ryabinina. The Russian Government (“the Government”) were represented by Mr G. Matyushkin, Representative of the Russian Federation at the European Court of Human Rights. 3.     The applicant alleged, in particular, that extradition to Tajikistan would subject him to the risk of ill-treatment, that his detention pending expulsion had been unlawful, and that no effective judicial review of his continued detention had been available to him. 4 .     On 23 November 2011 the President of the First Section decided to apply Rule 39 of the Rules of Court, indicating to the Government that the applicant should not be removed to Tajikistan or any other country until further notice, and granted priority treatment to the application under Rule   41 of the Rules of Court. 5.     On 31 January 2012 the application was communicated to the Government. It was also decided to rule on the admissibility and merits of the application at the same time (Article 29 § 1). THE FACTS I.     THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE CASE 6.     The applicant was born in Tajikistan in 1979. In recent years he has lived most of the time in Russia, in the Moscow Region. He is currently detained in the Lukhovitsy Detention Centre for Aliens in the Moscow Region. A.     The applicant’s background and his arrival in Russia 7.     The applicant lived in Tajikistan. His family owned a fruit farm near the town of Isfara in Tajikistan and about 10 hectares of orchards. They dried fruits and exported them to Russia. In 2002 the applicant moved to Russia, where he sold dried fruit at a market near Moscow. Every year he returned for two or three months to Tajikistan and helped his relatives with the harvest. He also sent money to his home town. He states that he has two wives: his first wife lives in Tajikistan with his children; his second wife moved to Russia, but after the applicant’s arrest (see paragraph 21 below) returned to Tajikistan. 8 .     According to the applicant, members of his family were victims of politically motivated persecution in Tajikistan. Thus, the applicant’s elder brother, Barot, took part in the 1992-95 civil war in Tajikistan on the opposition side. In the applicant’s words, Barot was one of the leaders of the United Tajik Opposition. He was arrested in 1995. Following his arrest, thousands of people, including members of the applicant’s family, demonstrated on the streets of Isfara demanding his release. The police used firearms while dispersing the demonstration. In the years which followed, the applicant’s brother was tried and sentenced for anti-constitutional conspiracy, first in 1997 and then again in 2003. According to the applicant, Barot told him that he had been tortured while in detention. 9 .     The applicant alleged that the Tajikistani authorities continued to persecute his family. On several occasions their family house was searched in the night; the applicant and his wife had to sleep fully dressed in fear of being apprehended. The authorities repeatedly and arbitrarily disconnected water and electricity supplies from his house. The local law-enforcement officers extorted money from him and forced the applicant to pay them part of his earnings in Russia. In addition, in 2007 the applicant had a quarrel with a local police officer. 10.     According to the applicant’s submissions, during his stays in Tajikistan he attended some opposition political gatherings. 11.     In November 2009 (the exact date of his arrival was disputed in the domestic proceedings in Russia) he arrived in Moscow from Tajikistan for the last time and started working at the Dorgomilovskiy food market in Moscow. In 2009 the applicant joined an opposition movement, Vatandor (“The Patriots”), which united Tajikistani nationals living abroad and wishing to see certain reforms in the country. The applicant took part in meetings of Vatandor members in Russia. The applicant’s name was put on the membership list of that organisation; however, he was not given any documents confirming his membership of Vatandor. B.     Criminal proceedings in Tajikistan 12 .     On 26 March 2009 the Tajikistani authorities opened a criminal case against the applicant. He was accused of anti-government armed conspiracy. Specifically, the applicant was accused of being a member of several opposition movements responsible for armed riots – first, the “Bay’at” group and then the “Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan” (“the IMU”). His brother Barot was sentenced to imprisonment twice for membership of those groups and involvement in the riots. According to the Tajikistani authorities, in October 2007 the applicant took part in the construction of a military base in the mountains in Kyrgyzstan, near the border with Tajikistan, where the IMU kept firearms and ammunition. He took an oath of allegiance to the movement. The applicant was also involved in propagating the ideas of the movement amongst local youth. 13.     On 30 March 2009 a formal statement of charges was issued against the applicant. He was additionally charged with supporting the IMU with the money he earned in Russia. The applicant was also accused of being involved in dealing in stolen cars in Moscow and the forgery of car documents. He sent the proceeds of this activity to Tajikistan to finance subversive activities there. 14 .     The applicant noted that there were two versions of the decision of 26 March 2009 to open a criminal case against him, as well as of the statement of charges of 30 March 2009. One version of the documents contained information apparently concerning another presumed member of the opposition, a Mr A. Abdulkhalikov. Furthermore, one version of the statement of charges against the applicant mentioned “stolen cars”, “forged documents” and “financing terrorist activities”, whereas another version did not contain that information. 15.     On 30 March 2009 the Tajikistani authorities ordered the applicant’s detention on remand in absentia. In the detention order personal data of the applicant contained information apparently concerning Mr Abdulkhalikov. The detention order did not mention stolen cars, forged documents, or financing of terrorist activities. 16.     On 22 March 2010 the Tajikistani authorities placed the applicant’s name on the international wanted list. In the international search request thus created the Tajikistani authorities placed the applicant’s own name in the column concerning his presumed accomplices. 17 .     On 3 September 2010, in the town of Khudjand, three police officers were killed and several people wounded in a terrorist attack. On 6   December 2010, in a press interview concerning the applicant’s arrest in Russia (see paragraph 21 below), the Minister of Internal Affairs of Tajikistan mentioned the applicant as one of the perpetrators of that terrorist attack. The applicant was defined as amir (the leader) of a terrorist cell operating from Russian territory. 18.     In 2009-10 other suspected participants in the conspiracy were arrested in Tajikistan and stood trial there. Fifty-three people   were convicted. One of them, Mr. Ismanov, was convicted inter alia of setting up “criminal contacts” with the applicant, and of transmitting “prohibited information” from the applicant in Russia to Tajikistan. 19.     During the trial several of the accused complained to the court of ill ‑ treatment by law-enforcement officers in the course of the preliminary investigation. The applicant referred to the case of Mr I. Boboyev, who died during questioning at the police station in the applicant’s home town, and who he stated was his cousin. The applicant also cited the case of Mr   S.   Marufov, a member of the Islamic Revival Party, who he said had been tortured to death by police officers in the applicant’s home town. The applicant lastly stated that a Mr I. Ismanov had been tortured. The wife of Mr Ismanov had seen the traces of torture, and was prepared to testify to it before the national court, but the court refused to hear her. 20 .     On 8 December 2010 the Tajikistani authorities sent an extradition request to the Russian authorities. The extradition request was accompanied by assurances that the applicant would not be subjected to torture or cruel, inhuman, degrading treatment or punishment. He would have all opportunities to defend himself in Tajikistan, including the right to legal assistance. He would not be persecuted on political grounds, or because of his race, religion, nationality or political views. In addition, assurances were given that the applicant would be prosecuted only in relation to the crimes mentioned in the extradition request, that he would be able to leave Tajikistan freely after standing trial and serving a sentence, and that he would not be expelled, transferred or extradited to a third State without the Russian authorities’ consent. C.     Proceedings in Russia 1.     The applicant’s arrest and detention pending extradition 21 .     On 3 November 2010 the applicant was arrested in the town of Dolgoprudniy in the Moscow Region, in connection with the international search warrant against him. He was questioned by the officers of the anti ‑ extremism department of the Russian police. 22.     During the questioning he explained that he had come to Russia in November 2008 for work and that he had not applied for Russian nationality or sought political asylum. His documents were not in order; he claimed that he had lost his Tajikistani passport. The applicant alleged that his criminal prosecution in Tajikistan was politically motivated because of his membership of the Vatandor opposition movement. 23.     On 4 November 2010 the Dolgoprudniy Town Court remanded the applicant in custody pending examination of the extradition request. 24 .     On 13 December 2010 the applicant requested the General Prosecutor’s office not to extradite him to Tajikistan, referring to imminent risk of ill-treatment there. He relied on reported cases of torture by law ‑ enforcement agencies in Tajikistan and the relevant case-law of the Court. The applicant argued that, being connected to the political opposition, he belonged to a vulnerable group and that his criminal prosecution in Tajikistan was politically motivated. 25.     On 22 December 2010 the Dolgoprudniy Town Court extended the period of the applicant’s detention pending extradition until 3 April 2011. 26.     On 25 December 2010 the applicant appealed, claiming in particular, that his detention was not justified, because the asylum proceedings he had initiated earlier (see paragraph 38 below) had a suspensive effect and he could not have been extradited before the completion of those proceedings. Therefore, there was no reason to detain him. 27.     On 28 December 2010 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia informed the General Prosecutor’s Office that they did not see any obstacles to the extradition of the applicant to Tajikistan. 28 .     On 14 January 2011 the Moscow Regional Prosecutor wrote a letter to the immigration authority in connection with the applicant’s request for asylum. In this letter he asked the Migration Authority to keep him informed of developments in the applicant’s case, and indicated that the applicant’s extradition was “under the control of the President of the Russian Federation”. 29.     On 27 January 2011 the Federal Security Service informed the General Prosecutor’s Office that they did not object to the extradition of the applicant to Tajikistan. 30.     On 8 February 2011 the applicant’s appeal was examined and dismissed by the Moscow Regional Court. 31 .     On 29 March 2011 the Dolgoprudniy District Court extended the applicant’s detention until 3 July 2011. On 1 April 2011 the applicant appealed against the extension. The applicant alleged, in particular, that if extradited he could be subjected to treatment contrary to Article 3 of the Convention. On 19 April 2011 the Moscow Regional Court confirmed the extension of the applicant’s detention. 32.     On 23 June 2011 the Deputy Prosecutor General of Russia decided to extradite the applicant to Tajikistan. 33.     On 29 June 2011 the applicant was informed of that decision. On the same day the Dolgoprudniy Town Court decided to extend the applicant’s detention pending extradition until 3 November 2011. 34.     On 30 June 2011 the applicant appealed against the extradition order. 35.     On 2 July 2011 the applicant appealed against the extension of his detention. 36.     On 13 July 2011 Amnesty International issued a statement expressing concerns about the possible extradition of the applicant to Tajikistan. 37.   On 16 July 2011 the Moscow Regional Court upheld the extension of the applicant’s detention. 2.     Asylum proceedings 38 .     On 10 November 2010 the applicant applied for asylum in Russia. In the application form he indicated that he belonged to the Vatandor opposition political movement. During the asylum interview he specified that he was not an active member of Vatandor and did not attend their gatherings, but simply “shared their political views”. 39 .     On 2 December 2010 he supplemented his application for asylum and put forward the same arguments as in the extradition proceedings. 40.     On 23 March 2011 his application for asylum was refused by the Migration Authority (“the MA”), on the ground that the applicant’s fears of persecution on political grounds in his home country were unfounded. He was formally notified of that decision on 5 April 2011. The MA concluded that the applicant had committed crimes on the territory of Tajikistan. The applicant belonged to organisations which had been banned by a decision of the Supreme Court of Tajikistan in 1993; therefore, his presence at the demonstration in 1995 in support of his arrested brother had been of itself a criminal act. The applicant’s allegation that one-third of the population of the town of Isfara had been prosecuted for their political views was, in the view of the MA, absurd, since there were not enough police officers in Tajikistan to prosecute so many people. The MA also concluded that the applicant’s membership of Vatandor was merely passive, and therefore that he was not at risk of ill-treatment in this connection. The MA found, in particular, that “it was certain that the applicant did not belong to any political, religious or civic organisations”. 41 .     On 25 April 2011 the applicant appealed, putting forward the same arguments as in the extradition proceedings. 42.     On 17 June 2011 the applicant’s appeal against that decision was rejected by the Federal Migration Service. 43 .     On 9 September 2011 the Basmanniy District Court of Moscow dismissed the applicant’s appeal against the decision of the MA not to grant him the refugee status in Russia. 44.     The District Court noted, in particular, that in the previous ten years he had been travelling freely between Russia and Tajikistan, and that every year he returned to Tajikistan to visit his relatives in Isfara. The applicant had applied for asylum only after his arrest in Russia and not immediately at border control. The applicant’s closest relatives lived in Tajikistan undisturbed and did not leave the country. The court concluded that this demonstrated that the applicant had not been a victim of political persecution as he alleged. 45.     As regards the applicant’s membership of Vatandor and his brother being a former leader of the United Tajik Opposition, the court noted that the applicant’s political involvement was not official, that he only shared their political opinions and did not attend meetings, nor did he engage in agitation. The mere fact that he had political views which were different from the government’s official position did not give him the right to claim asylum. 46.     The court further noted that Tajikistan was a member of many international conventions, had an ombudsman, and respected human rights. As regards the references to other sources which cast doubt in Tajikistan’s human rights record, that information had been obtained from the mass media, was opinionated, and was therefore not objective. 47.     The court held that he had not produced sufficient evidence of the risk of persecution for political reasons at home, and that Tajikistan complied with its international obligations in the human rights area. 48.     The applicant appealed. On 30 November 2011 the Moscow City Court upheld the judgment on appeal in a summary fashion. 3.     Judicial review of the extradition order 49 .     On 16 September 2011 the Moscow Regional Court examined the applicant’s appeal against the extradition order. At the hearing the applicant was represented by a lawyer of his choice. The applicant denied committing the offences imputed to him and presented an alibi. The defence also claimed that if extradited to Tajikistan the applicant would be tortured, as many others accused of “religious extremism” had been. The defence referred in this respect to the relevant case-law of the Court and to numerous reports of international human rights NGOs and UN bodies competent in the field. The applicant also claimed that he had learned about the criminal prosecution against him only at the moment of his arrest in Russia. He also referred to numerous inconsistencies in the documents submitted in support of the extradition request by the Tajikistani authorities (see paragraphs 14-16 above). 50.     The prosecution did not contest that the applicant belonged to the opposition movement and had been present at political gatherings. However, they drew the court’s attention to numerous inconsistencies in his submissions, cast doubt on the reliability of the sources of information relied on by the applicant, and stressed that the applicant was involved in a terrorist organisation. 51 .     Having heard the parties, the Regional Court upheld the extradition order. The Moscow Regional Court’s reasoning can be summarised as follows. The court observed that the applicant faced serious criminal accusations and that the acts imputed to him would in principle qualify as “crimes” under Russian law. It was not the task of the Russian court to establish whether the applicant was guilty of the impugned crimes. The court held that the inconsistencies in the Tajikistani documents were “technical errors” and did not affect the validity of the extradition request. 52 .     It was impossible for the court to establish when exactly the applicant had entered the territory of Russia for the last time, since the applicant’s own submissions in this respect were inconsistent, and there was no official information on the matter. However, the court found that it certainly had not been in November 2009, as the applicant had alleged. According to his original statement to the prosecutor, the applicant had been residing permanently in Russia since 2008. He had not applied for political asylum in Russia before his arrest. Although the applicant had lost his passport in 2010, he did not contact the embassy of Tajikistan to obtain a new one. During the interview the applicant was unable to indicate his exact address in Russia. 53.     The applicant had a family in Tajikistan, which included his brother’s family and his first wife and children. They all lived in their family house. He regularly spoke to them on the telephone, and it was impossible that they would not tell him about the criminal prosecution. The court concluded that the applicant had been living in Russia permanently since 2008, that he had been aware of the criminal proceedings against him in Tajikistan, and that he had been hiding from the Tajikistani authorities in Russia. 54.     The court did not find any evidence that the applicant’s case was “political”. At the first questioning he mentioned that he had come to Russia to find work, not out of fear of persecution. At the hearing the applicant stated that he had attended a political gathering in 1995, but that his role had been limited to giving a lift in a car to his relatives and taking them to the venue of the gathering. He denied having been involved in any political anti-governmental activity in Tajikistan. His activity in the Vatandor political movement was minimal: he simply shared their political opinions. The court observed that the applicant’s brother, Mr B. Azimov, was serving a prison sentence in Tajikistan; however, other members of his family, including his elder brother Mr R. Azimov, were all living in Tajikistan. The applicant’s first wife lived in Tajikistan with their five children and his second wife had been able to leave Tajikistan freely and come to Russia. His family owned ten   hectares of orchards near a recreational zone. He was able for many years to maintain himself and his family with his earnings from selling dried fruit in Russia. The authorities thus did not interfere with his business interests or those of his family, despite the allegedly political underpinning of the case against him. His own testimony about the political nature of the prosecution was inconsistent. He first stated that the criminal case against him resulted from personal animosity between him and the chief of the local police following a quarrel in a café. Later in the court proceedings the applicant suggested that the criminal prosecution had been instituted so that his family’s land could be taken away. 55.     The court also examined letters received from Amnesty International in support of the applicant’s cause, and noted that they did not contain anything which would point to the existence of a risk of ill-treatment to him personally. 56.     The court finally analysed the institutional and legislative guarantees against ill-treatment which existed in Tajikistan, as well as its international obligations, and concluded that they were sufficient to guarantee that the applicant would not be subjected to any ill-treatment. 57 .     On 1 November 2011 the Moscow Regional Court ruled that the applicant’s detention would not be extended pending extradition, because the period of the applicant’s detention had reached the maximum established by law (twelve months). At the same time, the court indicated that since the applicant had been residing in Russia without papers, he could have been subjected to expulsion (administrative removal) proceedings and detained on that ground. 58.     On 9 November 2011 the Supreme Court confirmed the validity of the extradition order and upheld the reasoning of the lower court. 4.     Expulsion (administrative removal) proceedings and the applicant’s detention pending expulsion 59.     On 2 November 2011 the prosecutor’s office forwarded the relevant documents in respect of the applicant to the police, who drew up a report on his illegal stay in Russia, which amounted to an administrative offence under Article 18.8 of the Code of Administrative Offences (“the CAO”). 60 .     On the same day, the Dolgoprudniy Town Court of the Moscow Region examined the case against the applicant and found him guilty. The court established that the applicant had unlawfully resided in Russia from February 2010 until his arrest on 3 November 2010 with a view to extradition. The court imposed an administrative fine on the applicant, ordered his expulsion (administrative removal) from Russia and placed him in detention pending expulsion because of the gravity of the offence and because the applicant had no stable income in Russia. No specific time-limit for the applicant’s detention was given by the court. The court did not address his arguments about the risk of ill-treatment in the event of his deportation to Tajikistan. 61 .     On 3 November 2011 the public prosecutor ordered the applicant’s release from detention pending extradition, because the maximum term prescribed by law had expired. In the release order the prosecutor noted that an extradition check was in progress. The applicant was not released but was transferred to the Serpukhov Detention Centre for Aliens in the Moscow Region, according to the detention order issued in the course of the expulsion proceedings. 62 .     On 6   November 2011 the applicant’s lawyers appealed against this order to the Moscow Regional Court. They submitted that the court had refused to consider the applicant’s arguments concerning the possibility of ill-treatment in Tajikistan. 63.     According to the applicant, during the night of 17 November 2011 he was visited in the detention centre by two police officers from the anti ‑ extremism department of the Ministry of Interior. They offered the applicant the opportunity to leave Russia for Tajikistan voluntarily, with a plane ticket provided by them. He was also photographed. It appears that the Dolgoprudniy Town prosecutor in charge of his case was not informed of that visit. Nor were the applicant’s lawyers informed thereof. The applicant declined the offer and was returned to his cell. 64.     On 22 November 2011 the Moscow Regional Court adjourned the hearing concerning the expulsion order due to the failure of one of the witnesses, a police officer who had issued the administrative offence report, to appear. 65 .     On 6 December 2011 the Moscow Regional Court examined the appeal. The police officer did not appear at the hearing, but the court decided to proceed with the case. The applicant was not present at the hearing either, since the police had not arranged for him to be transferred from the detention centre to the court; however, his lawyer was present. According to the applicant’s lawyer, the judge told her that the court had no obligation to arrange for the applicant to attend in person. The court confirmed the validity of the expulsion and detention orders. The court did not address the arguments concerning the risk of the applicant being ill ‑ treated in Tajikistan. The court did not specify the period of the applicant’s detention with a view to expulsion. 66.     On 4 May 2012 the applicant was transferred to the Lukhovitsy Detention Centre for Aliens in the Moscow Region. 5.     Opinion of the UNHCR Representation in the Russian Federation 67.     On 1 August 2012, at the applicant’s representative’s request, the Russian Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) expressed the following opinion on the risk of ill-treatment the applicant faces in Tajikistan: “In accordance with numerous reports of international organisations as well as generally accessible information on the Republic of Tajikistan, because of mass violations of human rights and basic principles of international law by the Tajikistani authorities, including the principle of prohibition of torture, in particular, widespread practices of torture and ill-treatment by law-enforcement bodies, especially to extract confessions in criminal proceedings, violations of fair trial provisions, such as denial of access to legal counsel and lack of an independent judiciary, taking into account the fact that in Tajikistan the applicant is to be prosecuted in connection with criminal offences, the UN Refugee Agency considers that there exists a real risk of torture for the applicant in the event of his expulsion to Tajikistan.” II.     RELEVANT DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL LAW AND PRACTICE A.     Extradition proceedings 1.     The Code of Criminal Procedure 68.     Chapter 54 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (“the CCrP”) of 2002 governs the procedure to be followed in the event of extradition. 69.     An extradition decision made by the Prosecutor General may be challenged before a court (Article 463 § 1). In that case the extradition order should not be enforced until a final judgment is delivered (Article 462 § 6). 70.     A court is to review the lawfulness and validity of a decision to extradite within a month of receipt of a request for review. The decision should be taken in open court by a panel of three judges in the presence of a prosecutor, the person whose extradition is sought and the latter’s legal counsel (Article 463 § 4). 71.     Issues of guilt or innocence are not within the scope of judicial review, which is limited to an assessment of whether the extradition order was made in accordance with the procedure set out in applicable international and domestic law (Article 463 § 6). 72 .     Article 464 § 1 lists the conditions under which extradition cannot be authorised. Thus, the following should be refused extradition: a Russian citizen (Article 464 § 1 (1)) or a person who has been granted asylum in Russia (Article 464 § 1 (2)); a person in respect of whom a conviction has become effective or criminal proceedings have been terminated in Russia in connection with the same act for which he or she has been prosecuted in the requesting State (Article 464 § 1 (3)); a person in respect of whom criminal proceedings cannot be launched or a conviction cannot become effective in view of the expiry of the statute of limitations or under another valid ground in Russian law (Article 464 § 1 (4)); or a person in respect of whom extradition has been blocked by a Russian court in accordance with the legislation and international treaties of the Russian Federation (Article 464 §   1 (5)). Finally, extradition should be refused if the act that serves as the basis for the extradition request does not constitute a criminal offence under the Russian Criminal Code (Article 464 § 1 (6)). 73.     Article 109 of the CCrP regulates, inter alia, periods of detention with a view to extradition (Directive Ruling of the Plenary Session of the Russian Supreme Court no. 22 of 29 October 2009, § 34). The maximum statutory period of detention in connection with serious offences is twelve months (Article 109 § 2). 2.     Supreme Court Directive Ruling of 14 June 2012 74.     In its Directive Ruling no. 11 of 14 June 2012, the Plenary Session of the Russian Supreme Court indicated, with reference to Article 3 of the Convention, that extradition should be refused if there were serious reasons to believe that the person might be subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment in the requesting country. Extradition could also be refused if exceptional circumstances disclosed that it might entail a danger to the person’s life and health on account of, among other things, his or her age or physical condition. Russian authorities dealing with an extradition case should examine whether there were reasons to believe that the person concerned might be sentenced to the death penalty, subjected to ill ‑ treatment or persecuted because of his or her race, religious beliefs, nationality, ethnic or social origin or political opinions. The courts should assess both the general situation in the requesting country and the personal circumstances of the person whose extradition was sought. They should take into account the testimony of the person concerned and that of any witnesses, any assurances given by the requesting country, and information about the country provided by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, by the relevant United Nations institutions and by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. B.     Expulsion (administrative removal) proceedings 1.     Code of Administrative Offences 75 .     Article 18.8 of the CAO provides that a foreign national who infringes residence regulations of the Russian Federation, including by residing on the territory of the Russian Federation without a valid residence permit or by failing to comply with the established procedure for residence registration, is liable to punishment by an administrative fine of 2,000 to 5,000 Russian roubles (RUB) with or without administrative removal from the Russian Federation. Under Article 28.3 § 2 (1) a report on the offence described in Article 18.8 is drawn up by a police officer. Article 28.8 requires such a report to be transmitted within one day to a judge or to an officer competent to examine administrative matters. Article 23.1   §   3 provides that the determination of any administrative charge that may result in removal from the Russian Federation shall be made by a judge of a court of general jurisdiction. The statute of limitations for administrative offences listed in Article 18.8 is one year from the date the relevant offence was committed (Article 4.5 § 1). 76.     Article 3.10 provides for two types of administrative removal, namely “controlled independent exit” and controlled forced removal. 77.     Article 32.10 § 5, as in force at the material time, allowed domestic courts to order a foreign national’s detention with a view to administrative removal. 78.     Article 27.3 § 1 provides that administrative detention can be authorised in exceptional cases if it is necessary for the fair and speedy determination of the administrative charge or for execution of the penalty. Federal Law no. 410-FZ of 6 December 2011, which amends certain provisions of the CAO, introduced Article 27.19, which specifies that administrative detention can be authorised in the case of controlled forced removal. 79.     Article 30.1 § 1 guarantees the right to appeal against a decision on an administrative offence to a court or a higher court. Article 30.5   § 3 provides that an appeal against an administrative removal order must be examined within one day of submission of the appeal. 80 .     Article 31.9 § 1 provides that a decision imposing an administrative penalty may not be enforced after the expiry of a two-year period from the date on which this decision became final. 81 .     Article 3.9 provides that an administrative offender can be penalised with administrative arrest only in exceptional circumstances, with a maximum term of thirty days. 2.     Federal Law no. 109-FZ of 18 July 2006 82.     Section 20 § 2 (2) of Federal Law no. 109-FZ of 18 July 2006 provides that a foreign national temporarily residing in Russia must register with a local migration authority within seven days. 3.     Constitutional Court Judgment no. 6-P of 17 February 1998 83 .     In judgment no. 6-P of 17 February 1998 the Russian Constitutional Court held, with reference to Article 22 of the Russian Constitution, that detention of a person with a view to removing him from Russia requires a court decision if that detention exceeds forty-eight hours. That decision must establish whether the detention is necessary for the purposes of enforcing the removal. The court should also assess the lawfulness and reasons for detention. Detention for an indefinite period of time is not acceptable, since it may become a form of punishment, which does not exist in Russian law and which is incompatible with the provisions of the Constitution. 4.     Russian NGOs’ report 84 .     In October 2012 a group of Russian NGOs (including the Public Verdict Foundation, the Civic Assistance Committee, the Memorial Human Rights Centre, Soldiers’ Mothers of Saint Petersburg, the Independent Psychiatric Association, and several others) prepared a ‘Shadow Report on the Observance of the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment by the Russian Federation for the period from 2006 to 2012’. Paragraph 133 of that Shadow Report reads as follows: “In recent years, the Russian authorities have increasingly relied on administrative expulsion in its efforts to transfer persons to states requesting their extradition. Expulsion decisions are taken by courts of general jurisdiction ... Courts ... refuse to examine arguments concerning the person’s risk [of being] subjected to torture in the country of destination, assuming that these arguments are not relevant in cases dealing with a foreigner’s violation of immigration rules in Russia. The government claims that such arguments cannot be considered by courts in ... administrative proceedings since their duration is very short and “... the alleged risk of ill-treatment ... [is] not a legally relevant fact, [so there is] no obligation to ascertain it” ... They fail to take into account the fact that the consequences of administrative expulsion and extradition are identical for the applicant, since in both cases s/he falls into the hands of the state requesting his/her return. It is important to note that in some cases such attempts [have been] made by explicit instructions from the Prosecutor General’s Office, indicating that the latter ignores the risk of the deportee’s [being subjected to] prohibited treatment in the country of destination ...” C.     Refugee status and asylum proceedings 1.     The Geneva Convention on the Status of Refugees of 1951 85.     Article 33 of the UN Convention on the Status of Refugees of 1951, which was ratified by Russia on 2 February 1993, provides as follows: “1.     No Contracting State shall expel or return (‘ refouler ’) a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion. 2.     The benefit of the present provision may not, however, be claimed by a refugee whom there are reasonable grounds for regarding as a danger to the security of the country in which he is, or who, having been convicted by a final judgement of a particularly serious crime, constitutes a danger to the community of that country.” 2.     Refugees Act 86.     The Refugees Act (Law no. 4258-I of 19 February 1993) defines a refugee as a person who is not a Russian national and who, owing to a well ‑ founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, ethnic origin, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such a fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such a fear, is unwilling to return to it (Article 1 § 1 (1)). The migration authority may refuse to examine the application for refugee status on the merits if the person concerned has left the country of his nationality in circumstances falling outside the scope of Article 1 § 1 (1), and does not want to return to the country of his nationality because of a fear of being held responsible for an offence (правонарушение) committed there (Article 5 § 1 (6)). 87.     Persons who have applied for or been granted refugee status cannot be returned against their will to the State of which they are a national where their life or freedom would be imperilled on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion (Article 1 § 1 (1) in conjunction with Article 10 § 1). 88.     Having received a refusal to examine an application for refugee status on the merits, and having decided not to exercise the right of appeal under Article 10, the person concerned must leave the territory of Russia within one month of receiving notification of the refusal if he has no other legal grounds for staying in Russia (Article 5 § 5). Under Article 10 § 5, having received a refusal to examine the application for refugee status on the merits or a refusal of refugee status, and having exercised the right of appeal against such refusals, the person concerned must leave the territory of Russia within three days of receiving notification of the decision on the appeal if he has no other legal grounds for staying in Russia. If, after the appeal has been rejected, the person concerned still refuses to leave the country, he is to be expelled (Article 13 § 2). 89.     If the person satisfies the criteria set out in Article 1 § 1 (1), or if he does not satisfy the criteria but cannot be expelled or deported from Russia