CEDH · CASELAW;JUDGMENTS;CHAMBER;ENG — 17 avril 2014

.s800EAC49 { font-size:12pt } .sFE10DC93 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:center } .sBB9EE52A { font-family:Arial } .s29100277 { font-family:Arial; font-weight:bold } .sA36B60A1 { font-family:Arial; font-style:italic } .s598389FB { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:center; font-size:14pt } .sE208486F { font-family:Arial; color:#ff0000 } .s10950C61 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify } .s4ACA9207 { page-break-before:always; clear:both; mso-break-type:section-break } .sFFD057F { margin-top:0pt; margin-left:14.2pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:justify } .s32563E28 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt } .sB9D5CABB { width:28.35pt; display:inline-block } .s967D43C6 { margin-top:36pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:14pt } .s9F223FEE { margin-top:18pt; margin-left:17.85pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:-17.85pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s7EE1C8F0 { margin-top:18pt; margin-left:29.2pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:-17.6pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .sC702907E { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:36.6pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:-15.05pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s9D48DD53 { margin-top:6pt; margin-left:21.25pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:7.1pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt } .s8378218E { margin-top:12pt; margin-left:48.75pt; margin-bottom:6pt; text-indent:-17pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:10pt } .s4BAE41EE { font-family:Arial; font-size:11pt } .s127C7598 { margin-top:0pt; margin-left:17pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:-17pt; text-align:justify } .s88A92475 { margin-top:12pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s7CB9076 { margin-top:36pt; margin-bottom:0pt; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s9732F2A { width:183.3pt; display:inline-block } .s7602FED2 { width:18.21pt; display:inline-block } .sC1AC44A4 { width:228.11pt; display:inline-block } .s379BC09C { margin-top:36pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:right } .s5E1364CA { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:12pt; text-align:center; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid; font-size:14pt } .s7ED160F0 { text-decoration:none } .sD79B6DFE { font-family:Arial; font-size:8pt; font-style:italic; vertical-align:super; color:#000000 } .s66E9FC38 { font-family:Arial; font-size:8pt; vertical-align:super; color:#000000 } .sADADF4A7 { font-family:Arial; text-decoration:underline } .s83BE5C30 { font-family:Arial; font-size:8pt; vertical-align:super } .s76CF415B { page-break-before:always; clear:both } .sA1D3DA2E { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:justify } .sF6A12959 { width:33%; height:1px; text-align:left } .s85226119 { margin-top:0pt; margin-bottom:0pt; text-align:justify; font-size:10pt } .s3133A7C8 { font-family:Arial; color:#0069d6 }       FIFTH SECTION               CASE OF SCHATSCHASCHWILI v. GERMANY   (Application no. 9154/10)               JUDGMENT       STRASBOURG   17 April 2014     THIS CASE WAS REFERRED TO THE GRAND CHAMBER WHICH DELIVERED JUDGMENT IN THE CASE ON 15/12/2015   This judgment may be subject to editorial revision.   In the case of Schatschaschwili v. Germany, The European Court of Human Rights (Fifth Section), sitting as a Chamber composed of:   Mark Villiger, President,   Angelika Nußberger,   Boštjan M. Zupančič,   Ann Power-Forde,   Ganna Yudkivska,   Helena Jäderblom,   Aleš Pejchal, judges, and Claudia Westerdiek, Section Registrar, Having deliberated in private on 11 March 2014, Delivers the following judgment, which was adopted on that date: PROCEDURE 1.     The case originated in an application (no. 9154/10) against the Federal Republic of Germany lodged with the Court under Article 34 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) by a Georgian national, Mr Swiadi Schatschaschwili (“the applicant”), on 12   February 2010. 2.     The applicant, who had been granted legal aid, was represented by Mr   H.   Meyer-Mews, a lawyer practising in Bremen. The German Government (“the Government”) were represented by their Agent, Mrs   K.   Behr, Regierungsdirektorin , of the Federal Ministry of Justice. 3.     By a letter dated 29 December 2013 the applicant’s lawyer informed the Court that the applicant had changed his place of residence from Germany to Georgia where he was now living under a different name. The Court advised the parties on 14 January 2014 that it would continue processing the application under the name Schatschaschwili v. Germany, which was the applicant’s name as referred to in the domestic proceedings at issue as well as in his application lodged with the Court. 4.     The applicant alleged, in particular, that neither he nor counsel had been granted an opportunity at any stage of the criminal proceedings instituted against him to examine the only direct witnesses and victims of the crime allegedly committed by him in Göttingen in February 2007 and on whose testimonies the applicant’s related conviction relied in breach of Article 6   §   3   (d) of the Convention. 5.     On 15 January 2013 the application was communicated to the Government. 6.     The applicant and the Government each filed observations on the admissibility and merits of the application. The Georgian Government, who had been informed of their right to intervene under Article 36 of the Convention, did not make use of this right. THE FACTS I.     THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE CASE 7.     The applicant was born in 1978. When lodging his application he was detained in Rosdorf prison, Lower Saxony ( Niedersachsen ). 8.     By a judgment of 25 April 2008 (file no. 63 Js 1244/07) the Göttingen Regional Court convicted the applicant of two counts of aggravated robbery in conjunction with aggravated extortion by means of coercion, committed jointly with further perpetrators ( gemeinschaftlicher schwerer Raub in Tateinheit mit schwerer räuberischer Erpressung ), and imposed an accumulated prison sentence ( Gesamtfreiheitsstrafe ) of nine years and six months. 9.     The crimes were committed in Kassel on 14 October 2006 and in Göttingen on 3 February 2007 respectively. A.     The facts established by the Göttingen Regional Court 1.     The events in Kassel 10.     The Regional Court found it established that in the evening of 14   October 2006 the applicant, acting jointly with an unidentified accomplice and according to a previously agreed plan, entered by force into an apartment in Kassel and robbed its occupants. The men were aware that the apartment was used for prostitution and expected its two female occupants to keep valuables and cash in there. They had passed by the apartment in the early evening in order to make sure that no clients were present. Shortly afterwards they rang at the door of the apartment which was attended by its tenant Ms L. After having overpowered L. by force the applicant threatened her with a gas pistol that resembled a real gun ordering her to keep silent. He then went to the kitchen where he found the further occupant of the apartment Ms I., a Lithuanian national who lived and worked there as a prostitute. Pointing his gas pistol at I. he forced her to hand over her mobile phone. While his accomplice was watching over the two women, the applicant searched the apartment for valuables and found five further mobile phones as well as 100 euros (EUR) in I.’s purse. The applicant then threatened to shoot the women should they not disclose where they were keeping any additional money. As a result of his threat L. handed over a further EUR 1,000 which she had kept in the pocket of her jacket. The men then left the apartment with their loot. Later that evening an acquaintance of L. whom she had told about the incident called the police which came to the apartment. 2.     The events in Göttingen 11.     As regards the events on 3 February 2007, the Regional Court established that the applicant, acting jointly with several accomplices, two of whom were the applicant’s co-accused in the proceedings before the court, robbed another apartment located in Göttingen. The men acted according to a plan previously set up among the gang. At the relevant time the apartment was occupied by Ms O. and Ms P., two Latvian nationals who were illegally staying in Germany and working in the apartment as prostitutes. O. and P. were friends of L., one of the victims of the crime committed in Kassel on 14 October 2006, and they had both worked for some time as prostitutes in the Kassel apartment rented by L. before moving to Göttingen. 12.     In the evening of 2 February 2007, the day before the crime, one of the applicant’s co-accused together with accomplice R. passed by O. and P.’s apartment in Göttingen with a view to verifying whether the two women were its only occupants and whether it contained any valuables. R. was an acquaintance of O. and P. whom they got to know through their friend L. when they had stayed in her apartment in Kassel. Hence, the unsuspecting women did not object to the men entering the apartment. Following their visit the two men reported to the residual members of the criminal gang that they had spotted a safe in the apartment’s kitchen. 13.     On 3   February 2007 at around 8 p.m. the applicant and a further accomplice, B., gained access to O. and P.’s apartment pretending to be potential clients while one of the co-accused was waiting in a car parked close to the apartment building and the other co-accused in front of the house. Once inside the apartment B. produced a knife that he had carried along in his jacket. P., trying to escape from the perpetrators, jumped from the apartment’s balcony located approximately two meters off the ground and ran away. The applicant jumped after her but abandoned the chase after some minutes when passers-by appeared nearby on the street. He then called the co-accused waiting in front of the women’s apartment on his mobile phone and gave him an account of the events. He agreed with the latter on a meeting point where the co-accused were supposed to pick him up with the car once accomplice B. would have left the crime scene and have joined them. In the meantime inside the apartment, B. after having overpowered O. threatened to kill her with his knife should she not disclose where the women kept their money or should she refuse to open the safe for him. Fearing for her life O. opened the safe from which B. removed EUR 300 and also handed over the contents of her wallet in the amount of EUR 250. B. left the apartment at around 8.30 p.m. taking the money and P.’s mobile phone as well as the apartments’ landline phone with him and joined the co ‑ accused. The co-accused and B. then picked up the applicant at the agreed meeting point with their car. 14.     At approximately 9.30 p.m. P. rejoined O. at the apartment. The women called their friend L. in Kassel and gave her a brief account of the events. The next day they also told their neighbour E. about the crime. Later that day the women, afraid of remaining alone in the Göttingen apartment, drove to Kassel where they stayed a few days with their friend L. Following short subsequent stays in Frankfurt am Main and back in Göttingen they returned to Latvia in February 2007. B.     The Regional Court’s fact finding and assessment of evidence 1.     The events in Kassel 15.     The Regional Court based its finding of facts regarding the first crime committed in Kassel on 14 October 2006 on the statements made by the victims L. and I. on the occasion of their police interrogations as well as in the course of the subsequent trial. Both witnesses had identified the applicant without any hesitation as the perpetrator who had carried the gun when presented with his photo on the occasion of their police interviews and later when confronted with him personally at trial. The Regional Court found L. and I.’s testimonies to be consistent and credible and noted that they were supported by the statements of the police officers who had attended the crime scene and had interviewed L. and I. in the course of the preliminary investigations and who had all been heard as witnesses during the trial. 2.     The events in Göttingen 16.     As regards the establishment of facts in relation to the second crime committed in Göttingen the Regional Court relied in particular on pre-trial statements made by the victims O. and P. in the course of police interrogations in the period from 15 to 18 February 2007 and before an investigating judge on 19 February 2007. 17.     By a decision of 21 February 2008 the Regional Court, dismissing a related objection by the defence, ordered that the records of O. and P.’s interrogations by the police and the investigating judge be read out at the trial and be admitted as evidence in the proceedings in accordance with Article 251 (1) and (2) of the German Code of Criminal Procedure (see Relevant domestic law below). The said article provides for such possibility in the event insurmountable impediments make it impossible to hear a witness in the foreseeable future. The Regional Court pointed out in this context that it had not been possible to hear the witnesses in the course of the trial since they had returned to their home country Latvia shortly after their interrogations at the investigative stage and all attempts to enable their examination at the main hearing had been to no avail. 18.     The Regional Court specified that O. and P. had been summoned to appear before the Regional Court on 24 August 2007, the third day of the trial. However, they both had refused to attend the hearing relying on medical certificates dated 9 August 2007 that indicated their unstable post ‑ traumatic emotional and psychological condition. Consequently, on 29   August 2007 the court had sent letters to both witnesses asking under what conditions they would be ready to testify at trial. While an acknowledgement of receipt had been returned for both letters, no response had been obtained from P. O. for her part had informed the Regional Court in writing that due to the fact that she was still traumatised by the crime, she would neither accept to appear at the trial in person nor would she agree to be examined by means of an audio-visual transmission. O. had further mentioned that she had nothing to add to her statements made in the course of the interviews before the police and the investigating judge in February 2007. 19.     The Regional Court nevertheless requested legal assistance from the Latvian authorities and asked for the witnesses to be heard by a court in Latvia and the hearing to be transmitted by voice and image ( audiovisuelle Vernehmung ). However, a witness hearing scheduled by the competent Latvian court for 13 February 2008 was cancelled shortly before by the presiding Latvian judge on the ground that the witnesses, again relying on medical certificates, had demonstrated that they were still suffering from post-traumatic disorders as a consequence of the crime and that a further confrontation with the events in Göttingen would risk aggravating their condition. The witnesses had further claimed that following threats by the accused they feared possible acts of revenge. 20.     The Regional Court informed their Latvian counterpart by a letter dated 21 February 2008 that according to the standards of German law of criminal procedure the reasons advanced by the witnesses were not sufficiently substantiated to justify their refusal to testify. The court suggested to the competent Latvian judge to have the witnesses examined by a public medical officer ( Amtsarzt ) and, alternatively, to coerce them to attend the hearing. 21.     As the letter remained unanswered, the Regional Court considered that it did not dispose of any further legal means to enforce a hearing of O. and P. Having further regard to the fact that the recently renewed medical certificates indicated that the witnesses’ state of health would not change any time soon, the Regional Court concluded that it was impossible to have the witnesses examined in the foreseeable future. Pointing out that courts were under an obligation to conduct proceedings involving the deprivation of liberty expeditiously and in view of the fact that the accused had already been held in custody for a considerable period of time, the court was of the opinion that it could not be justified to further delay the proceedings. 22.     Consequently, a further objection against the introduction of the witnesses’ pre-trial statements by counsel of one of the co-accused was rejected by the Regional Court and the records of the witnesses’ police interrogations and interviews with the investigative judge were read out during a hearing on 26 February 2008. 23.     In its judgment running to some 152 pages, the Regional Court pointed out that in assessing the available evidence it had been aware of the reduced evidentiary value of the records of O. and P.’s pre-trial testimonies. It had further taken into account that neither the applicant nor counsel for the defence had been provided with an opportunity to examine the only direct witnesses of the crime in Göttingen at any stage of the proceedings. At the time of the last pre-trial interrogation of O. and P. on 19 February 2007, the applicant had not been informed about the preliminary criminal proceedings initiated against him with a view to not putting the investigations at risk. No warrant for his arrest had yet been issued and he had not been represented by counsel. The investigating judge had excluded the applicant from the hearing in accordance with Article 168 (c) of the Code of Criminal Procedure since he had been concerned that the witnesses would be afraid of telling the truth in the presence of the accused. The Regional Court further emphasised that at the investigative stage there had been no indication that O. and P. who had testified on several occasions before the police and then before the investigating judge would refuse to repeat their statements at a subsequent trial. 24.     The Regional Court held that notwithstanding the resulting restrictions for the defence, the trial as a whole had been fair and had complied with the requirements of Article 6 §   3   (d) of the Convention. The court was thus not prevented from admitting O. and P.’s pre-trial statements as evidence in the proceedings. It had made considerable efforts to enable a direct examination of O. and P. by the accused and counsel for the defence at trial. Moreover, once the witnesses had proved to be unavailable the Regional Court had ensured that a maximum of further witnesses who had been in contact with O. and P. in relation to the events at issue could be heard at trial. Finally, the court had taken several items of evidence as corroborating O. and P.’s pre-trial testimonies into account when assessing their evidentiary value. 25.     In the Regional Court’s opinion the records of O. and P.’s interrogations at the investigative stage showed that they had given detailed and coherent descriptions of the circumstances of the crime. Minor contradictions in their statements could be explained by their concern not to disclose their illegal residence status and activities to the authorities and by the psychological strain they had been subject to during and following the incident. The witnesses had feared problems with the police and acts of revenge by the perpetrators. This explained why the witnesses had not pressed charges immediately after the events and why the police had only been informed of the crime on 12 February 2007 by their friend L. As regards O. and P.’s’ failure to identify the applicant when confronted with several photos of potential suspects during the police interrogations, the court observed that the witnesses’ attention during the incident had been focussed on the further perpetrator carrying the knife and that the applicant himself had only stayed a short period of time in the apartment. Their inability to identify the applicant also showed that the witnesses, as opposed to the defence’s allegations, had not testified with a view to incriminating him. 26.     In the court’s opinion the fact that the detailed description of the events in the witnesses’ pre-trial statements were consistent with the account they had given the morning after the crime to their neighbour E., who had been heard as a witness during the trial, was a further strong indication for their credibility and the veracity of their statements. This witness had further testified that on the evening of 3 February 2007 at around 9.30 p.m. another neighbour, an elderly woman who got scared when she heard noise coming from O. and P.’s apartment, had called on her and asked her to accompany her to the women’s flat to investigate what had happened. O. and P. had, however, not answered the door when the neighbours were ringing the bell. 27.     The Regional Court further observed that O. and P.’s description of the events also coincided with their friend L.’s recollection of her conversations with O. and P. following the crime as reproduced during L.’s witness hearing at trial. In addition, the police officers and the investigating judge who had examined O. and P. at the pre-trial stage had all testified at trial that they had found the witnesses to be credible. 28.     The Regional Court noted that since neither the defence nor the court itself had had an opportunity to observe the main witnesses’ demeanour at trial or by means of an audio-visual examination, it had to exercise particular diligence in assessing the evaluation of the witnesses’ credibility by the police officers and the investigating judge. The court further emphasised that when taking into account the testimonies given by the witnesses’ neighbour E. and their friend L. it had paid special attention to the fact that their statements constituted hearsay evidence and had to be assessed particularly carefully. 29.     In this context it had been of relevance that O. and P.’s testimonies as well as the statements of the further witnesses at trial had been supported by further significant and admissible evidence such as data obtained through tapping of the applicant’s and the co-accused’s mobile phones and by means of a satellite-based global positioning system (“GPS”). Such information had been gathered within the scope of police surveillance measures carried out at the relevant time in relation to preliminary criminal proceedings initiated against the accused on suspicion of racketeering and extortion ( Schutzgelderpressung ) in the Göttingen drug scene. The link between the evidence obtained in the course of such separate investigations and the crime at issue could only be made after O. and P. had reported the incident of 3 February 2007 to the police. It followed from the recordings of two mobile phone conversations between one of the co-accused and the applicant in the evening of 3 February 2007 at 8.29 p.m. and 8.31 p.m. that the latter had been present in the victims’ apartment accompanied by B. and that he had jumped from the balcony in order to chase one of the escaping victims whom he failed to capture, while B. had stayed in the apartment. Furthermore, an analysis of the GPS data showed that the car of one of the co-accused had been parked near the crime scene from 7.58 p.m. to 8.32   p.m. on the evening of 3 February 2007, a period that coincided with the time-frame in which the robbery in issue had occurred. 30.     Finally, while the applicant and the co-accused had denied any participation in the robbery as such or any premeditated criminal activity in this respect, their own statements at trial had at least confirmed that one of the co-accused together with R. had visited the apartment at Göttingen on the evening before the crime and that the applicant and B. had been present in the apartment at the time of the incident the following day. The applicant had testified that he and B. had come to the apartment with a view to making use of the women’s services as prostitutes. He further had conceded that he had followed P. when she escaped over the balcony and explained that he had done so in order to prevent her from calling the neighbours or the police since he had been afraid of getting problems in view of his criminal record and the problems he had previously had with prostitutes on a similar occasion in Kassel. 31.     In the court’s view the body of evidence taken together gave a coherent and complete overall picture of the events that supported the version provided by witnesses O. and P. and refuted the contradictory statements made by the applicant and the co-accused in the course of the trial. C.     The subsequent proceedings 32.     Counsel for the applicant lodged an appeal on points of law against the judgment of the Göttingen Regional Court in which he complained that the applicant had not been able to examine the only direct witnesses of the crime committed in Göttingen at any stage of the proceedings in breach of Article 6 §§ 1 and 3 (d) of the Convention. He argued that such inability had been imputable to the domestic authorities. According to the Federal Court of Justice’s case-law counsel had to be appointed for an unrepresented accused if the key witnesses for the prosecution were to testify before an investigating judge and the accused was excluded from this hearing. However, at the time of the witness hearing the applicant had not even been informed about the preliminary proceedings instituted against him and the public prosecution authorities had not requested that defence counsel be appointed for him. Consequently, O. and P.’s testimonies ought to have been excluded from the trial. 33.     By written submissions dated 9 September 2008 the Federal Public Prosecutor General ( Generalbundesanwalt ) moved that the applicant’s appeal on points of law be dismissed by the Federal Court of Justice as manifestly ill-founded in written proceedings pursuant to Article 349 (2) of the Code of Criminal Procedure (see Relevant domestic law below). The Prosecutor General argued that while it was true that the proceedings had been characterised by a “complete loss” of the applicant’s right to examine O. and P. (“ Totalausfall des Fragerechts” ), they had as a whole been fair and there had been no reason to exclude the witness statements of O. and P. as evidence. The Regional Court had assessed the contents of the records of the witnesses’ testimonies read out at trial particularly carefully and critically. Furthermore, it had not made their statements the sole or decisive basis of the applicant’s conviction but had taken further significant evidence into account. In view of the various layers of corroborating evidence the applicant had had ample opportunities to put into question the credibility of the two main witnesses and to effectively defend himself. The Federal Prosecutor, endorsing the Regional Court’s related arguments, further pointed out that there was nothing to demonstrate that the restrictions to the defence’s right to examine the witnesses had been imputable to the domestic authorities. 34.     By written submissions of 28 September 2008 the applicant replied to the Federal Prosecutor’s observations and requested the Federal Court of Justice to hold a hearing in the appeal proceedings. 35.     By a decision of 30 October 2008 the Federal Court of Justice, referring to 349 (2) of the Code of Criminal Procedure, dismissed the applicant’s appeal on points of law as manifestly ill-founded. 36.     By written submissions of 17 November 2008 the applicant complained of a violation of his right to be heard ( Anhörungsrüge ) on the ground that no hearing had been held in the appeal proceedings and that the Federal Court of Justice’s decision rejecting his appeal did not provide any reasons. 37.     In its decision of 9 December 2008 rejecting the applicant’s complaint the Federal Court of Justice pointed out that any decision dismissing an appeal on the basis of Article 349 (2) of the Code of Criminal Procedure implied a reference to the respective reasoning provided by the Prosecutor General. 38.     By a decision of 8 October 2009 the Federal Constitutional Court refused to admit the applicant’s constitutional complaint against the decisions of the Federal Court of Justice dated 30 October and 9 December 2008 for examination without providing reasons. 39.     It follows from the applicant’s submissions that he has meanwhile left prison and returned to his native country Georgia. II.     RELEVANT DOMESTIC LAW 40.     Article 160 of the Code of Criminal Procedure stipulates that as soon as the public prosecution authorities obtain knowledge of a suspected criminal offence either through a criminal complaint or by other means they shall investigate the facts with a view to deciding whether public charges are to be preferred. The public prosecution authorities shall ascertain not only incriminating but also exonerating circumstances, and shall ensure that evidence, the loss of which is to be feared, is taken. 41.     Pursuant to Article 168 (c) (2) of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the prosecutor, the accused and defence counsel shall be permitted to be present during the judicial examination of a witness or expert prior to the opening of the main proceedings. The judge may exclude an accused from being present at the hearing if his presence would endanger the purpose of the investigation, in particular if it is to be feared that a witness will not tell the truth in the presence of the accused (Article 168 (c) (3) of the Code of Criminal Procedure). The persons entitled to be present shall be given prior notice of the dates set down for the hearings. The notification shall be dispensed with if it would endanger the success of the investigation (Article   168 (c) (5) of the Code of Criminal Procedure). 42.     Defence counsel may be appointed during preliminary proceedings; the public prosecution office shall request such an appointment if in its opinion the assistance of defence counsel in the main proceedings will be mandatory (Article 141 (3) of the Code of Criminal Procedure). The assistance of defence counsel is mandatory if, inter alia , the main hearing is held at first instance before the Regional Court or the accused is charged with a serious criminal offence (Article 140 (1) nos. 1, 2 and 7 of the Code of Criminal Procedure). 43.     In a leading judgment of 25 July 2000 (published in the official reports, BGHSt , volume 46, p. 96 et seq . ) the Federal Court of Justice held that Article 141 (3) of the Code of Criminal Procedure required, in view of Article 6 § 3 (d) of the Convention, the investigative authorities to consider the appointment of counsel for an unrepresented accused if the key witness for the prosecution was to testify before an investigating judge and the accused was excluded from this hearing. In the event such key witness would dispose of a statutory right not to testify at the accused’s possible ensuing trial, the appointment of counsel was, as a rule, necessary in order to counter the danger that the accused would be deprived of his right under Article 6 §   3 (d) to examine the key witness at any stage of the proceedings. 44.     Article 238 (1) of the Code of Criminal Procedure states that the presiding judge shall conduct the hearing, examine the defendant and take the evidence. Article 240 (2) stipulates that the presiding judge shall, upon request, give permission to the public prosecution office, to the defendant, and to defence counsel, as well as to the lay judges to address questions to the defendant, witnesses and experts. According to Article 244 (2) the court, in order to establish the truth, shall, proprio motu , extend the taking of evidence to all facts and means of proof relevant to the decision. 45.     Pursuant to Article 251 (1) and (2) of the Code of Criminal Procedure the examination of a witness may be replaced by reading out a record of another examination or a certificate that contains a written statement originating from the witness if the latter has died or cannot be examined by the court for another reason within a foreseeable period of time. Examination of a witness may also be replaced by reading out the written record of his previous examination by a judge if illness, infirmity, or other insurmountable impediments prevent the witness from appearing at the main hearing for a long or indefinite period. 46.     Article 257 of the Code of Criminal Procedure stipulates that after each co-defendant has been examined and after evidence has been taken in each individual case the defendant shall be asked whether he or she has anything to add. According to Article 258 of the said Code, the public prosecutor and subsequently the defendant shall further be given the opportunity to present their arguments and to file applications after the taking of evidence has been concluded 47.     The rules concerning an appeal on points of law against judgments of the criminal courts are to be found in Articles 333 to 358 of the Code of Criminal Procedure. Article 337 stipulates that such appeal may be filed only on the ground that the judgment was based upon a violation of law. According to Article 345 (2) representation by counsel is mandatory for submission of the appeal. Article 349 (2) and (3) stipulates that the court may, upon a reasoned application by the public prosecution authorities, dismiss a convict’s appeal on points of law by unanimous decision and without a hearing in the event it deems the appeal to be manifestly ill ‑ founded. The public prosecution authorities shall notify the complainant of such application and the reasons advanced in its support. The complainant may submit a written response to the appellate court within two weeks. If the latter does not follow the prosecution’s request and holds a hearing it shall decide on the appeal by means of a judgment. 48.     Articles 112 et seq. of the Code of Criminal Procedure concern detention on remand. Pursuant to Article 112 § 1, a defendant may be detained on remand if there is a strong suspicion that he has committed a criminal offence and if there are grounds for arresting him. Grounds for arrest will exist where, inter alia , certain facts warrant the conclusion that there is a risk of a suspect’s absconding (Article 112 § 2 no. 2). THE LAW I.     ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLE 6   §§   1 AND 3   (d) OF THE CONVENTION 49.     The applicant complained that his trial had been unfair and that the principle of equality of arms was infringed in that neither he nor counsel had been granted an opportunity at any stage of the criminal proceedings to examine O. and P., the only direct witnesses and victims of the crime allegedly committed by him in Göttingen in February 2007. He invoked Article 6 § 1 read in conjunction with Article 6 § 3 (d) of the Convention, which, as far as relevant, read as follows: “1.     In the determination ... of any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law... ... 3.     Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the following minimum rights: ... (d)     to examine or have examined witnesses against him and to obtain the attendance and examination of witnesses on his behalf under the same conditions as witnesses against him; ...” 50.     The Government contested that argument. A.     Admissibility 51.     The Court notes that this complaint is not manifestly ill-founded within the meaning of Article 35 § 3 (a) of the Convention. It further notes that it is not inadmissible on any other grounds. It must therefore be declared admissible. B.     Merits 1.     The parties’ submissions (a)   The applicant 52.     The applicant maintained that the requirement under Article 6 § 3 (d) to grant an accused the right to examine or have examined witnesses against him with a view to testing their credibility constituted a procedural guarantee that aimed at ensuring compliance with the principle of equality of arms in criminal proceedings. It followed that evidence obtained from witnesses whom only the investigative authorities but not the defence had been able to question was inadmissible and had, as a rule, to be excluded by the trial court. While acknowledging that exceptions to this rule might apply under special circumstances, such as, for instance, in cases where restrictions to an accused’s right to confront a witness at trial were strictly necessary with a view to protecting the latter, such considerations were not of relevance in the case at hand. 53.     The applicant submitted in this context that it had been imputable to the domestic authorities that O. and P., the main witnesses against him, could not be examined by the defence at any stage of the proceedings. Since it had been evident that the witnesses would leave Germany in due course after their pre-trial interview by the investigating judge, the authorities would have been under an obligation pursuant to Article 168 (c) of the Code of Criminal Procedure to give the applicant an opportunity to attend the witnesses’ hearing. In the alternative, they should have appointed counsel for him and allow the latter’s presence at the interview with a view to granting the defence the possibility to confront the witnesses. Notwithstanding this procedural flaw in the preliminary proceedings, the Regional Court had the minutes of O. and P.’s examination by the investigating judge read out at the applicant’s trial and admitted them as evidence. 54.     The applicant further contended that at the trial stage the domestic authorities had not availed themselves of all appropriate means to ensure that the witnesses be available to testify. They could, for instance, have granted O. and P. a temporary residence permit for this purpose and counter a possible risk that they would be subject to threats and pressure on the part of the applicant by including them into a witness protection program. The domestic authorities had further not considered whether it would have been possible to arrange for the witnesses’ examination by an official of the German embassy in Latvia once all other attempts to question them by intermediary of the Latvian authorities had failed. 55.     In the applicant’s view, the disadvantages for the defence resulting from the domestic authorities’ failure to grant the applicant an opportunity to confront O. and P. had not been compensated by the prosecution authorities or the domestic courts in the course of the proceedings. It was the Court’s established case law that a conviction could not rely exclusively or to a decisive degree on depositions that have been made by witnesses whom the accused has had no opportunity to confront at any stage of the proceedings like it had been the case in the proceedings at issue. 56.     The applicant concluded that the rights of the defence had been restricted to an extent which was irreconcilable with the guarantees contained in Article 6 §§ 1 and 3 (d) of the Convention. (b)   The Government 57.     The Government took the view that it followed from the relevant parts of the judgment’s reasoning (see above paragraphs 17–20) that the Göttingen Regional Court had taken all reasonable steps to arrange for an examination of O. and P. in the course of the main proceedings. Once all attempts to convince the witnesses to attend trial or to arrange for their hearing abroad by a Latvian judge had failed, the Regional Court had rightly considered that it did not dispose of any further legal means to enforce a hearing of O. and P. and that it was impossible to question them as witnesses in the foreseeable future. 58.     It had also not been imputable to the domestic authorities that O. and P. could not be examined by the applicant at the pre-trial stage. It had been justified to exclude him from the witnesses’ hearing before the investigating judge in order not to jeopardise the purpose of the then still covert investigations. The investigating judge had had reasonable grounds for assuming that the witnesses would be afraid of telling the truth in the presence of the suspected perpetratrors and that the applicant, once informed about the pending investigations, would try to intimidate O. and P. with a view to influencing their testimony. 59.     The Government further maintained that the domestic authorities had not been obliged to appoint defence counsel for the applicant at the investigative stage. At that point in time it had not been foreseeable that the witnesses, who had previously testified on several occasions before the police, would refuse to repeat their statements, at least by means of an audio-visual transmission, in the course of a subsequent trial. The witnesses had, in particular, not disposed of a statutory right not to testify in court like, for instance, in the case of family members of an accused. The appointment of defence counsel had further carried the risk that the latter would inform the applicant of the preliminary proceedings. This would not only have endangered the conduct of the investigations for the reasons stated above but also created a risk of the applicant absconding. Contrary to the applicant’s submissions, it had not been possible to issue an arrest warrant against him already prior to O. and P.’s hearing by the investigative judge since the strong suspicion that he had committed a criminal offence justifying his possible detention on remand had only resulted from such witness hearing. 60.     In the Government’s view the ensuing restrictions for the rights of the defence had been compensated in the course of the proceedings. The witness statements made by P. and O. at the pre-trial stage had been corroborated by the testimonies of further witnesses as well as the analysis of the data obtained through tapping of the applicant’s and the co-accused’s mobile phones and by means of GPS and had thus not constituted the sole basis of the applicant’s conviction. Furthermore, in its assessment of the available evidence the Regional Court had taken into account that the applicant did not have a possibility to confront O. and P. at any stage of the proceedings and that the statements of some of the witnesses heard at trial constituted hearsay evidence. As a consequence it had scrutinised the available evidence particularly carefully and critically with a view to evaluating the witnesses’ credibility and analysing any possible contradictions in their testimonies. 61.     The Government concluded that in the present case the rights of the defence had not been restricted to an extent that was incompatible with the procedural safeguards provided for in Article 6 § 3 (d) or the principle of equality of arms and that the proceedings against the applicant taken as a whole had been fair. 2.     The Court’s assessment 62.     The Court recalls that the guarantees in paragraph 3 (d) of Article 6 are specific aspects of the right to a fair hearing set forth in paragraph 1 of this provision which must be taken into account in any assessment of the fairness of proceedings. In addition, the Court’s primary concern under Article 6 § 1 is to evaluate the overall fairness of the criminal proceedings (see, among other references, Taxquet v. Belgium [GC], no. 926/05, §   84, ECHR 2010). In making this assessment the Court will look at the proceedings as a whole having regard to the rights of the defence but also to the interests of the public and the victims that crime is properly prosecuted (see Gäfgen v. Germany [GC], no.   22978/05, §   175, ECHR 2010) and, where necessary, to the rights of witnesses (see, amongst many authorities, Doorson v. the Netherlands , 26 March 1996, §   70, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996 ‑ II). It is also recalled in this context that the admissibility of evidence is a matter for regulation by national law and the national courts and that the Court’s only concern is to examine whether the proceedings have been conducted fairly (see Al-Khawaja and Tahery v. the United Kingdom [GC], nos.   26766/05 and 22228/06, §   118, ECHR 2011). 63.     Article 6 § 3 (d) enshrines the principle that, before an accused can be convicted, all evidence against him must normally be produced in his presence at a public hearing with a view to adversarial argument. The underlying principle is that the defendant in a criminal trial should have an effective opportunity to challenge the evidence against him. Exceptions to this principle are possible but must not infringe the rights of the defence, which, as a rule, require not merely that a defendant should know the identity of his accusers so that he is in a position to challenge their probity and credibility but that the accused should be given an adequate and proper opportunity to challenge and question a witness against him, either when that witness makes his statement or at a later stage of proceedings (see Lucà v. Italy , no. 33354/96, §   39, ECHR 2001 ‑ II, and Solakov v. “the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia” , no. 47023/99, § 57, ECHR 2001 ‑ X). 64.     The Court notes that the present application does not concern witnesses whose identity are concealed from the accused. In the instant case the victims and only direct witnesses of the events at issue refused to attend and testify at trial and could thus neither be heard by the trial court nor was the defence able to examine them or observe their demeanour under questioning with a view to forming their own impression of their probity and credibility. Their witness statements made at the pre-trial stage during police interrogations as well as before an investigative judge in the presence of the public prosecutor were nevertheless read out at trial and admitted as evidence by the Regional Court. On the occasion of O. and P.’s examinations at the investigative stage the applicant had not yet been notified of the preliminary criminal proceedings pending against him and counsel had not been appointed for him. The defence did thus at no stage of the proceedings have an opportunity to confront the witnesses. 65.     As regards the introduction of testimonies by witnesses who are absent at trial and who could not be questioned by the accused at any stage of the proceedings, the Court has clarified in its judgment in the case of Al ‑ Khawaja and Tahery , cited above, §§ 119 ‑ 147) that in determining whether the admission of such evidence was compatible with the right to a fair trial it had first to be established that there was a good reason for the non-attendance of the witness. Second, where the evidence of an absent witness was the sole or decisive basis for a conviction, sufficient counterbalancing factors were required, including the existence of strong procedural safeguards, which permitted a fair and proper assessment of the reliability of that evidence to take place (see Al-Khawaja and Tahery , cited above, §§ 119 and 147). 66.     Since then, the Court has examined cases concerning, inter alia , the admission of evidence from an anonymous witness which was possibly decisive ( Ellis and Simms v. the United Kingdom (dec.), no. 46099/06, §   81, 10   April 2012), from an anonymous witness which was found to be of “considerable weight” ( Pesukic v. Switzerland , no. 25088/07, §   49, 6   December 2012) and from an absent witness which was found to be neither sole nor decisive ( Štefančič v. Slovenia , no. 18027/05, §   42, 25   October 2012). In all these contexts, the Court proceeded to examine whether the safeguards were sufficient to counterbalance the admission of the untested evidence and carried out an overall examination of the fairness of the proceedings in order to determine whether the defendant’s rights have been unacceptably restricted. 67.     As to the reasons for admitting O. and P.’s testimonies, the Court notes at the outset that the Göttingen Regional Court did not base its decision to continue the trial without hearing the witnesses and to admit their pre-trial statements as evidence on the witnesses’ alleged fear to testify but rather on the fact that it had been impossible to coerce them to attend trial in Germany or to arrange for their examination by a court in Latvia. 68.     The Court has previo