CEDH · CASELAW;JUDGMENTS;CHAMBER;ENG — 20 octobre 2020

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margin-bottom:12pt; text-indent:14.2pt; text-align:justify; page-break-inside:avoid; page-break-after:avoid } .s69DCC830 { margin-top:36pt; margin-bottom:0pt } .s22DF8C6D { width:194.29pt; display:inline-block } .s7602FED2 { width:18.21pt; display:inline-block } .sC1AC44A4 { width:228.11pt; display:inline-block }   FOURTH SECTION CASE OF NAPOTNIK v. ROMANIA (Application no. 33139/13)     JUDGMENT   Art 1 P12 • Prohibition of discrimination • Justified necessity of recalling applicant from diplomatic posting abroad after announcing pregnancy • Art   14 case-law standards applicable to Art 1 P12 • Unjustified differences in treatment on grounds of pregnancy constitute direct discrimination • Applicant’s recall necessary for ensuring and maintaining functional capacity of diplomatic mission and protecting the rights of Romanian nationals in need of consular assistance • Change in applicant’s work conditions not equivalent to loss of employment and not expressly prohibited by domestic and international standards • Measure not disciplinary and entailing no long-term setbacks to applicant’s career   STRASBOURG 20 October 2020   FINAL   20/01/2021     This judgment has become final under Article 44 § 2 of the Convention. It may be subject to editorial revision. In the case of Napotnik v. Romania, The European Court of Human Rights (Fourth Section), sitting as a Chamber composed of:   Yonko Grozev, President ,   Iulia Antoanella Motoc,   Carlo Ranzoni,   Stéphanie Mourou-Vikström,   Georges Ravarani,   Jolien Schukking,   Péter Paczolay, judges , and Andrea Tamietti, Section Registrar , Having regard to: the application against Romania lodged with the Court under Article 34 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (“the Convention”) by a Romanian national, Ms Oana-Cornelia Napotnik (“the applicant”), on 8 May 2013; the decision to give notice to the Romanian Government (“the Government”) of the application; the parties’ observations; Having deliberated in private on 24 March, 1 September and 29   September 2020, Delivers the following judgment, which was adopted on the last ‑ mentioned date: INTRODUCTION 1.     The application concerns the immediate termination of the applicant’s diplomatic posting in Ljubljana, Slovenia, allegedly because of her pregnancy. THE FACTS 2.     The applicant was born in 1972 and lives in Bucharest. She was represented by S.C.A. Ionescu and Sava, a law firm in Bucharest. 3.     The Government were represented by their Agent, most recently Ms   O.F. Ezer, of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 4.     The facts of the case, as submitted by the parties, may be summarised as follows. The applicant’s work IN the consular section OF THE ROMANIAN embassy IN Ljubljana 5.     The applicant is a Romanian diplomat. On 1   October 2002 she started working for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (hereinafter “the MFA”). 6 .     The applicant sat a competitive examination for a four-year post as a consular officer at the Romanian embassy in Ljubljana. Following the examination, she was appointed to the post by an order of the Minister for Foreign Affairs issued on 9   February 2007. At the time, she held the diplomatic rank of third secretary. Her diplomatic posting started on 2   March 2007, and since 1 January 2006 the post had been held by diplomats sent on temporary assignments. 7.     When the applicant arrived to take up her post, the embassy’s diplomatic staff consisted of the ambassador and two junior diplomats: the applicant, who was in charge of consular duties (about 70% of her work), and another individual, whose main tasks were diplomatic and political cooperation and who had received no consular training. The diplomatic staff also included an economic officer, sent from the Ministry of the Economy. 8 .     The applicant’s consular work consisted mainly in providing help to Romanian nationals who found themselves in emergency situations in Slovenia, notably in police detention, without identity papers or hospitalised. The first pregnancy 9.     In April 2007 the applicant married a Slovenian official. A few months later she became pregnant with their first child. In November 2007 she was absent from work for a few days because of health problems linked to her pregnancy. On 27 November her obstetrician ordered that she should have bed rest. On the next day she informed the ambassador of her medical condition. She also asked to take her annual leave in the period from December to January 2008. 10.     On 6 December 2007 the ambassador sent an internal report on the applicant’s absence from work to the MFA, accompanied by a note written in the following terms: “Please find attached a communication from the embassy in Ljubljana which presents the act of insubordination [ actul de indisciplină ] committed by Mrs Oana Napotnik ...” 11 .     The ambassador described in detail the applicant’s absence from work and asked for a replacement to be sent for the month of December, when requests for consular assistance were high. As no replacement was sent from the MFA, the consular section was closed during the applicant’s absence and requests for assistance were redirected to the embassies in Zagreb, Vienna or Budapest. The applicant resumed work in February 2008. 12 .     The applicant returned to work during her leave, on 14 and 17   December 2007, in order to deal with urgent consular matters. 13 .     In December 2007 the applicant was promoted to second secretary, upon being recommended for this position by her superiors. 14 .     The applicant, who gave birth to her child on 16 June 2008, was on maternity leave from 2 June to 19   October 2008. She then took annual leave until 5 December 2008. 15 .     The consular section of the embassy was closed between 2 and 15   June 2008, when a replacement was found for the applicant; that person was on a temporary assignment. 16.     Between 17 and 19 July 2008, after the start of the applicant’s maternity leave, the MFA organised an audit of the embassy in Ljubljana. According to the ensuing report, deficiencies were found in the consular activity at the embassy. In particular, it was found that consular requests and official documents had been improperly recorded in the embassy records. Some original documents issued by the consular section had not been archived or had simply been lost. Some documents had been recorded on the wrong date or had not been signed by the relevant parties. The audit team made recommendations, without proposing sanctions. The relevant part of the report read as follows: “Several deficiencies have been identified in the consular activity, despite the low volume of work. One of the reasons is linked to the parameters of Mrs   Oana Napotnik’s professional activity, including the fact that during the first half of 2008, owing to her pregnancy, she was absent from work for long periods of time.” 17.     On 27 February 2009 the applicant sent an answer to the MFA, pointing out in particular that the audit team had generalised some particular situations where errors had been made, and that she had been made responsible for the conduct of the diplomats who had preceded her and those who had replaced her during her absence. She also found it regrettable that she had not been invited to talk to the inspectors while the audit team had been in Ljubljana. The second pregnancy 18.     The applicant returned to work on 5 December 2008. The ambassador considered that, as the applicant had worked very little that year, it would be more appropriate to postpone her annual work performance evaluation by six months. On 14 January 2009 the ambassador informed the MFA of that decision. 19 .     On 19 January 2009 the applicant informed the ambassador that she was pregnant and was due to give birth in the second half of July 2009. 20 .     On the same day the ambassador concluded the applicant’s annual performance evaluation for 2008. The overall assessment read as follows: “Although the overall assessment is that ‘the performance met the job requirements’, in Mrs Oana Napotnik’s case, bearing in mind the short period of time which she spent working in 2008, because of her maternity leave and because of frequent absences due to medical appointments from February to June, these circumstances mean that she is not best suited for consular activity, which has a certain specificity, particularly since Mrs Napotnik is the head of the consular section.” 21 .     The applicant was informed of this report on 23 January 2009. She disagreed with the assessment. Termination of the applicant’s posting 22 .     On 20 January 2009 the ambassador discussed the applicant’s situation with his superiors. In an internal note for the attention of the Minister for Foreign Affairs, the ambassador reiterated that the applicant had been repeatedly absent, owing to her first pregnancy, and it was to be expected that she would be absent again in connection with the new pregnancy. It was concluded that she was of little use to the diplomatic mission in Ljubljana. She created additional costs for the MFA because of the need to replace her on a temporary basis (notably costs with regard to lodging the replacement diplomat in Ljubljana). The note also reiterated that the audit team had found “deficiencies in the applicant’s consular activity”. It was proposed that the applicant’s posting be terminated. 23 .     In a separate communication sent to the MFA on 20 January 2009, the ambassador reiterated that the applicant’s prolonged and repeated absences due to her pregnancies had meant that she was of little use to the diplomatic mission in Ljubljana. The ambassador added that she represented an additional security risk because of her marriage to a Slovenian national: the applicant’s husband drove the applicant’s car, which was registered with diplomatic plates. 24 .     By a ministerial order of 20 January 2009, the applicant’s posting to Ljubljana was terminated. The next day the embassy in Ljubljana was given notice of the order. The applicant was informed that her mission had been terminated and that she was expected to return to the Bucharest office on 14   February 2009. She immediately requested parental leave (see Article   27 of Law no. 269/2003, quoted in paragraph 33 below). 25.     At the applicant’s request, her contract of employment was suspended by orders of the Minister for Foreign Affairs, firstly in respect of her parental leave (from 14   February 2009 to 15 May 2010 for the first child, and from 15   May 2010 to 22   July 2011 for the second child), and then in order to allow her to accompany her husband on his permanent diplomatic posting abroad (lasting four years, starting from 22 July 2011). She was not paid a salary by her employer while her contract was suspended. 26 .     On 1 September 2015 the applicant resumed her work at the MFA. On 20 September 2016 she was promoted to first secretary. On the date of the last information received from the parties in this regard (the Government’s observations of 14 June 2019) she was still working for the MFA, in Bucharest. Civil action against tHE termination of the APPLICANT’S diplomatic posting in Slovenia 27.     On 28 September 2009 the applicant lodged a civil action against the MFA concerning the termination of her posting abroad. She complained mainly that the reason for the act in question had been her pregnancy. In her view, that reason was discriminatory and thus unlawful. 28 .     On 21 March 2012 the Bucharest County Court dismissed the action. It reiterated that the Minister for Foreign Affairs had the discretion to organise foreign representation and terminate postings abroad whenever necessary, on serious grounds. The court concluded that the applicant’s posting had not been terminated on discriminatory grounds. The relevant parts of its findings read as follows: “The court considers that the termination [of the applicant’s posting was] allowed in the specific sphere of diplomatic activity and [did] not constitute a disciplinary measure ... it is within the discretion of [the MFA] to decide, in order to ensure the renewal [of the diplomatic corps], when to begin a diplomat’s new posting and when to terminate [the postings] of others, in order to ensure and maintain the functional capacity of diplomatic missions. ... In so far as discrimination is concerned, the court notes that decisions to terminate a posting are taken by [the MFA] with regard to all diplomats, irrespective of their sex; when [the applicant] argues that her posting should not have been terminated on these grounds, [she] is using her pregnancy in order to obtain preferential treatment.” 29.     The applicant lodged an appeal with the Bucharest Court of Appeal. She maintained her arguments that her diplomatic posting had been terminated on discriminatory grounds related to her pregnancy. 30 .     In a final decision of 8 November 2012, the Court of Appeal dismissed the appeal and upheld the decision rendered by the County Court on 21 March 2012 (see paragraph 28 above). In addition, it found as follows: “The Labour Code does not limit an employer’s right to organise the activity of its pregnant employees, the sole prohibition being that their contract of employment may not be terminated ... ... [the applicant] did not prove that she had been discriminated against by [the MFA], as the decisions to terminate her posting had been taken by the MFA lawfully and within the scope of its discretion, with a view to ensuring the functioning of the MFA; such a measure can be taken in respect of all employees of the MFA, irrespective of sex or pregnancy.” RELEVANT LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND PRACTICE DOMESTIC LAW 31 .     The relevant provisions of the Equal Opportunity Act (Law no.   202/2002) read as follows: Article 6 “(5)     The following actions do not constitute discrimination: (a)     special measures provided for by law for the protection of maternity, birth, the postnatal period, breastfeeding and child-rearing; (b)     positive actions for the protection of certain categories of women or men; ...” Article 10 “(1)     Maternity cannot constitute grounds for discrimination. (2)     Any less favourable treatment of a woman in connection with pregnancy or maternity leave constitutes discrimination under the present law.” 32 .     The relevant provisions of Government Emergency Ordinance no.   96/2003 on the protection of maternity in the workplace read as follows: Article 2 “... (g)     the duration of mandatory postnatal leave is 42 days, which the worker must take after giving birth; it is included in maternity leave, which has an overall duration of 126 days for all pregnant workers, in accordance with the law; ...” Article 21 “(1)     An employer shall not terminate a contract of employment in the following cases: (a)     [in the case] of a [pregnant worker], for reasons directly connected to her condition; (b)     [in the case] of a worker who is on leave owing to risks connected to maternity; (c)     [in the case] of a worker who is on maternity leave; ...” 33 .     At the time of the facts of the present case, the relevant provisions of Law no. 269/2003 on the Statute of the Diplomatic and Consular Corps (“Law no.   269/2003”) read as follows: Article 3 “(1)     The general provisions of labour law and those of the Statute of Civil Servants shall complement the provisions of the Statute of the Romanian Diplomatic and Consular Corps, unless otherwise stated in the present law. (2)     While on posting[s] abroad, members of the diplomatic and consular corps shall also be subject to the provisions of the international treaties which Romania has entered into, and to other rules of international law.” Article 9 “(1)     Promotion within the diplomatic and consular ranks shall be on the basis of time spent in service ..., the evaluation of professional activity, and qualifications obtained from the Diplomatic Academy or other institutes for continuous learning ...” Article 25 “(1)     During diplomatic and consular postings abroad, members of the Romanian diplomatic and consular corps, as well as the members of their families who accompany them, shall have the benefit of medical assistance, covered by the mandatory health insurance organised by the MFA ...” Article 27 “(1)     Members of the Romanian diplomatic and consular corps shall have the right to annual leave, study leave, unpaid leave, medical leave, maternity leave, [and] parental leave until a child is two years old ...” Article 35 “(1)     Members of the diplomatic and consular corps ... shall be sent on permanent posting[s] abroad following a competitive examination ... (5)     The length of a diplomatic posting abroad shall, in principle, be four years, and three years in countries with a difficult climate. ... (15)     Vacant diplomatic and consular posts abroad which must be filled urgently ... shall be published within the central administration of [the MFA] ... after being approved by the Minister for Foreign Affairs. The Minister for Foreign Affairs shall fill these posts on a temporary basis for a period of up to 13 months, with the possibility of one extension for up to one year.” Article 48 “(1)     In order to ensure the necessary specialist staff from the [MFA], secondments and temporary employment shall be possible for the duration of a permanent diplomatic posting ...” DOMESTIC PRACTICE 34 .     On several occasions the National Council for Combating Discrimination (“the NCCD”) has been asked to verify allegations of discrimination against pregnant workers. The NCCD found the following situations discriminatory: –     the refusal to pay a pregnant worker’s salary for two months, with the intention of making her resign (decision of 18 January 2012); –     the decision to retain all workers except pregnant workers in their posts, following the reorganisation of an employer company (decision of 6   February 2013); –     a change in a claimant’s work situation during her short absence from work due to complications caused by her pregnancy (decision of 30   April 2014); –     the summary dismissal of a visibly pregnant worker, despite the employer’s arguments that the dismissal was related to the claimant’s performance (decision of 25 January 2017); –     a change of working conditions during or after a person’s return from parental leave (decisions of 7 February 2013, 16 October 2013, 4   September 2013 and 18 November 2015). 35 .     On the other hand, the NCCD considered that the fact that an employer had offered less complex tasks to a claimant during her pregnancy did not constitute discrimination, as that had been justified by the fact that her presence at work would be limited during her pregnancy (decision of 14   September 2016). 36 .     The Bucharest Court of Appeal has identified the following situations as being discriminatory on grounds of pregnancy: –     offering a pregnant worker a temporary contract of employment instead of a permanent one (final decision of 14 December 2016); –     giving a worker notice of her dismissal as soon as she had informed her employer of her pregnancy (final decisions of 25 June 2012 and 6   November 2012); –     dismissing a pregnant worker at the end of the probationary period of an open-ended contract (final decision of 13 June 2014). 37 .     The Bucharest County Court examined an action seeking the annulment of a ministerial order whereby the MFA had decided to recall Mr   X from his four-year posting at the embassy in Geneva before the end of the relevant term and terminate his contract of employment. The claimant had been hired for a specific position at the embassy in Geneva, but following a restructuring of the diplomatic activities, those tasks had been transferred to another embassy, in Moscow. The County Court dismissed the action on the grounds that the reason for terminating the posting had been legitimate. COUNCIL OF EUROPE MATERIAL Recommendation No. R(85)2 of the Committee of Ministers 38 .     The relevant provisions of Recommendation No. R(85)2 on legal protection against sex discrimination, adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 5   February 1985 at the 380th meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies, read as follows: “... Recognising the necessity to ensure legal and de facto equality between men and women, in particular by improving the situation of women and by taking into account the specific needs of certain categories of people; ... Principles I.     Promotion of equality between the sexes by legislation In order to promote equality between the sexes, legislation should aim at the following objectives: 1.     In the field of employment, men and women should have equal rights with regard to opportunities for employment and conditions of employment in all fields and, in particular, should be entitled to: a.     equal right of access to work; b.     equal conditions of work; c.     equal opportunities for training; d.     equal pay for work of equal value; e.     equal opportunities for advancement. ... III.     Special temporary measures (positive action) States should, in those areas where inequalities exist, give consideration to the adoption of special temporary measures designed to accelerate the realisation of de facto equality between men and women, where there are no obstacles of a constitutional nature, in particular by: a.     making employers aware of the desirability of having as an objective the achievement of equality between the sexes; ...” European Social Charter 39 .     The respondent State ratified the European Social Charter (revised) in 1999, and considered itself bound by that charter. The relevant provisions read as follows: “... Part I The Parties accept as the aim of their policy, to be pursued by all appropriate means both national and international in character, the attainment of conditions in which the following rights and principles may be effectively realised: ... 8.     Employed women, in case of maternity, have the right to a special protection. ... 20.     All workers have the right to equal opportunities and equal treatment in matters of employment and occupation without discrimination on the grounds of sex. ... 27.     All persons with family responsibilities and who are engaged or wish to engage in employment have a right to do so without being subject to discrimination and as far as possible without conflict between their employment and family responsibilities. ... Part II The Parties undertake, as provided for in Part III, to consider themselves bound by the obligations laid down in the following articles and paragraphs. ... Article 8 – The right of employed women to protection of maternity With a view to ensuring the effective exercise of the right of employed women to the protection of maternity, the Parties undertake: 1.     to provide either by paid leave, by adequate social security benefits or by benefits from public funds for employed women to take leave before and after childbirth up to a total of at least fourteen weeks; 2.     to consider it as unlawful for an employer to give a woman notice of dismissal during the period from the time she notifies her employer that she is pregnant until the end of her maternity leave, or to give her notice of dismissal at such a time that the notice would expire during such a period; 3.     to provide that mothers who are nursing their infants shall be entitled to sufficient time off for this purpose; 4.     to regulate the employment in night work of pregnant women, women who have recently given birth and women nursing their infants; ... Article 20 – The right to equal opportunities and equal treatment in matters of employment and occupation without discrimination on the grounds of sex With a view to ensuring the effective exercise of the right to equal opportunities and equal treatment in matters of employment and occupation without discrimination on the grounds of sex, the Parties undertake to recognise that right and to take appropriate measures to ensure or promote its application in the following fields: a     access to employment, protection against dismissal and occupational reintegration; b     vocational guidance, training, retraining and rehabilitation; c     terms of employment and working conditions, including remuneration; d     career development, including promotion. ... Article 27 – The right of workers with family responsibilities to equal opportunities and equal treatment With a view to ensuring the exercise of the right to equality of opportunity and treatment for men and women workers with family responsibilities and between such workers and other workers, the Parties undertake: ... 2.     to provide a possibility for either parent to obtain, during a period after maternity leave, parental leave to take care of a child, the duration and conditions of which should be determined by national legislation, collective agreements or practice; ...” LAW AND PRACTICE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION Directives of the Council of the European Union 40 .     The matter of equality between men and women, and special protection for pregnancy, has been tackled in several directives adopted by the Council of the European Union, in particular: Directive 76/207/EEC of 9   February 1976 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions; Council Directive 92/85/EEC of 19   October 1992 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health at work of pregnant workers and workers who have recently given birth or are breastfeeding; and Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5   July 2006 on the implementation of the principle of equal opportunities and equal treatment of men and women in matters of employment and occupation (recast) (which repealed Directive 76/207/EEC). 41 .     The relevant provisions of Directive 2006/54/EC read as follows: “Whereas: ... 23.     It is clear from the case-law of the Court of Justice that unfavourable treatment of a woman related to pregnancy or maternity constitutes direct discrimination on grounds of sex. Such treatment should therefore be expressly covered by this Directive. 24.     The Court of Justice has consistently recognised the legitimacy, as regards the principle of equal treatment, of protecting a woman’s biological condition during pregnancy and maternity and of introducing maternity protection measures as a means to achieve substantive equality. This Directive should therefore be without prejudice to Council Directive 92/85/EEC of 19   October 1992 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health at work of pregnant workers and workers who have recently given birth or are breastfeeding. This Directive should further be without prejudice to Council Directive 96/34/EC of 3   June 1996 on the framework agreement on parental leave concluded by UNICE, CEEP and the ETUC. 25.     For reasons of clarity, it is also appropriate to make express provision for the protection of the employment rights of women on maternity leave and in particular their right to return to the same or an equivalent post, to suffer no detriment in their terms and conditions as a result of taking such leave and to benefit from any improvement in working conditions to which they would have been entitled during their absence. ...” Article   15 – Return from maternity leave “A woman on maternity leave shall be entitled, after the end of her period of maternity leave, to return to her job or to an equivalent post on terms and conditions which are no less favourable to her and to benefit from any improvement in working conditions to which she would have been entitled during her absence.” 42 .     The relevant provisions of Directive 92/85 read as follows: “Whereas Article 15 of Council Directive 89/391/EEC of 12 June 1989 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health of workers at work provides that particularly sensitive risk groups must be protected against the dangers which specifically affect them; Whereas pregnant workers, workers who have recently given birth or who are breastfeeding must be considered a specific risk group in many respects, and measures must be taken with regard to their safety and health; Whereas the protection of the safety and health of pregnant workers, workers who have recently given birth or workers who are breastfeeding should not treat women on the labour market unfavourably nor work to the detriment of directives concerning equal treatment for men and women; ... Whereas the risk of dismissal for reasons associated with their condition may have harmful effects on the physical and mental state of pregnant workers, workers who have recently given birth or who are breastfeeding; whereas provision should be made for such dismissal to be prohibited; ... Whereas, moreover, provision concerning maternity leave would also serve no purpose unless accompanied by the maintenance of rights linked to the employment contract and or entitlement to an adequate allowance; ...” Article 10 Prohibition of dismissal “In order to guarantee workers, within the meaning of Article 2, the exercise of their health and safety protection rights as recognized under this Article, it shall be provided that: 1.     Member States shall take the necessary measures to prohibit the dismissal of workers, within the meaning of Article 2, during the period from the beginning of their pregnancy to the end of the maternity leave referred to in Article 8 (1), save in exceptional cases not connected with their condition which are permitted under national legislation and/or practice and, where applicable, provided that the competent authority has given its consent; 2.     if a worker, within the meaning of Article 2, is dismissed during the period referred to in point 1, the employer must cite duly substantiated grounds for her dismissal in writing; 3.     Member States shall take the necessary measures to protect workers, within the meaning of Article 2, from consequences of dismissal which is unlawful by virtue of point 1.” Case-law of the Court of Justice of the European Union 43 .     In its case-law, the Court of Justice of the European Union (hereinafter “the CJEU”) established that as only women could become pregnant, a refusal to employ a pregnant woman based on her pregnancy or her maternity, or the dismissal of a pregnant woman on such grounds, amounted to direct discrimination on grounds of sex, which could not be justified by any other interest. 44 .     In the Dekker judgment (8 November 1990, C ‑ 177/88, EU:C:1990:383), the CJEU ruled that a refusal to employ a woman who met the conditions for a post because she was pregnant constituted direct discrimination on grounds of sex. The applicant in the Dekker case applied for the post, was considered the most suitable candidate, but ultimately was not hired because she was pregnant. The employer argued that, in accordance with the law, she was not eligible to be paid pregnancy benefits by the relevant insurer, and thus the employer would have to pay those benefits during her maternity leave. As a result, the employer would be unable to afford to employ a replacement during her absence, and would thus be short-staffed. The CJEU found as follows. “12     In that regard it should be observed that only women can be refused employment on grounds of pregnancy and such a refusal therefore constitutes direct discrimination on grounds of sex. A refusal of employment on account of the financial consequences of absence due to pregnancy must be regarded as based, essentially, on the fact of pregnancy. Such discrimination cannot be justified on grounds relating to the financial loss which an employer who appointed a pregnant woman would suffer for the duration of her maternity leave.” 45 .     In the Hertz judgment (8 November 1990, C ‑ 179/88, EU:C:1990:384), the CJEU ruled that dismissals which were the result of absences due to an illness not attributable to pregnancy or confinement did not breach the Directive on equal treatment. In that case, the applicant, who had been absent owing to illness during her pregnancy, became ill again after the end of her maternity leave. She was dismissed because of her absences. The relevant parts of that judgment read as follows: “13     It follows from the provisions of the Directive quoted above that the dismissal of a female worker on account of pregnancy constitutes direct discrimination on grounds of sex, as is a refusal to appoint a pregnant woman (see judgment of today’s date in Case C ‑ 177/88 Dekker v VJM-Centrum [1990] ECR I ‑ 3941). 14     On the other hand, the dismissal of a female worker on account of repeated periods of sick leave which are not attributable to pregnancy or confinement does not constitute direct discrimination on grounds of sex, inasmuch as such periods of sick leave would lead to the dismissal of a male worker in the same circumstances. 15     The Directive does not envisage the case of an illness attributable to pregnancy or confinement. It does, however, admit of national provisions guaranteeing women specific rights on account of pregnancy and maternity, such as maternity leave. During the maternity leave accorded to her pursuant to national law, a woman is accordingly protected against dismissal due to absence. It is for every Member State to fix periods of maternity leave in such a way as to enable female workers to absent themselves during the period in which the disorders inherent in pregnancy and confinement occur. 16     In the case of an illness manifesting itself after the maternity leave, there is no reason to distinguish an illness attributable to pregnancy or confinement from any other illness. Such a pathological condition is therefore covered by the general rules applicable in the event of illness.” 46 .     The CJEU further held that any unfavourable treatment directly or indirectly connected to pregnancy or maternity constituted direct sex discrimination. In the Webb judgment (14 July 1994, C-32/93, EU:C:1994:300), the CJEU found that the situation of a pregnant woman could not be compared with that of a man who was absent because of illness. The applicant in the Webb case found out that she was pregnant a few weeks after being hired to replace a worker who had herself become pregnant. She was dismissed as soon as the employer found out about her pregnancy. The CJEU ruled as follows: “24     First, in response to the House of Lords’ inquiry, there can be no question of comparing the situation of a woman who finds herself incapable, by reason of pregnancy discovered very shortly after the conclusion of the employment contract, of performing the task for which she was recruited with that of a man similarly incapable for medical or other reasons. 25     As Mrs Webb rightly argues, pregnancy is not in any way comparable with a pathological condition, and even less so with unavailability for work on non-medical grounds, both of which are situations that may justify the dismissal of a woman without discriminating on grounds of sex. Moreover, in the Hertz judgment, cited above, the Court drew a clear distinction between pregnancy and illness, even where the illness is attributable to pregnancy but manifests itself after the maternity leave. As the Court pointed out (in paragraph 16), there is no reason to distinguish such an illness from any other illness. 26     Furthermore, contrary to the submission of the United Kingdom, dismissal of a pregnant woman recruited for an indefinite period cannot be justified on grounds relating to her inability to fulfil a fundamental condition of her employment contract. The availability of an employee is necessarily, for the employer, a precondition for the proper performance of the employment contract. However, the protection afforded by Community law to a woman during pregnancy and after childbirth cannot be dependent on whether her presence at work during maternity is essential to the proper functioning of the undertaking in which she is employed. Any contrary interpretation would render ineffective the provisions of the directive. 27     In circumstances such as those of Mrs Webb, termination of a contract for an indefinite period on grounds of the woman’s pregnancy cannot be justified by the fact that she is prevented, on a purely temporary basis, from performing the work for which she has been engaged ...” 47 .     In the Hofmann judgment (12 July 1984, C ‑ 184/83, EU:C:1984:273), which concerned paternity allowance, the CJEU found as follows: “25     It should further be added, with particular reference to paragraph (3), that, by reserving to member states the right to retain, or introduce provisions which are intended to protect women in connection with ‘pregnancy and maternity’, the directive recognizes the legitimacy, in terms of the principle of equal treatment, of protecting a woman’s needs in two respects. First, it is legitimate to ensure the protection of a woman’s biological condition during pregnancy and thereafter until such time as her physiological and mental functions have returned to normal after childbirth; secondly, it is legitimate to protect the special relationship between a woman and her child over the period which follows pregnancy and childbirth, by preventing that relationship from being disturbed by the multiple burdens which would result from the simultaneous pursuit of employment.” 48 .     In the Tele Danmark judgment (4 October 2001, C-109/00, EU:C:2001:513), the CJEU extended the protection for absence due to pregnancy to temporary contracts. The applicant was recruited for a six ‑ month fixed period. She failed to inform the employer that she was pregnant, even though she was aware of this when the contract was concluded. Because of her pregnancy, she was unable to work during a substantial part of the term of that contract. The relevant parts of the judgment read as follows: “29.     In paragraph 26 of Webb , the Court also held that, while the availability of an employee is necessarily, for the employer, a precondition for the proper performance of the employment contract, the protection afforded by Community law to a woman during pregnancy and after childbirth cannot be dependent on whether her presence at work during the period corresponding to maternity leave is essential to the proper functioning of the undertaking in which she is employed. A contrary interpretation would render ineffective the provisions of Directive 76/207. 30.     Such an interpretation cannot be altered by the fact that the contract of employment was concluded for a fixed term. 31.     Since the dismissal of a worker on account of pregnancy constitutes direct discrimination on grounds of sex, whatever the nature and extent of the economic loss incurred by the employer as a result of her absence because of pregnancy, whether the contract of employment was concluded for a fixed or an indefinite period has no bearing on the discriminatory character of the dismissal. In either case the employee’s inability to perform her contract of employment is due to pregnancy. 32.     Moreover, the duration of an employment relationship is a particularly uncertain element of the relationship in that, even if the worker is recruited under a fixed term contract, such a relationship may be for a longer or shorter period, and is moreover liable to be renewed or extended.” In that judgment, the CJEU further found that the size of an employer was irrelevant for that matter: “37.     It suffices to observe that Directives 76/207 and 92/85 do not distinguish, as regards the scope of the prohibitions they lay down and the rights they guarantee, according to the size of the undertaking concerned.” INTERNATIONAL MATERIAL 49 .     The relevant parts of the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (“the CEDAW”), which was ratified by the respondent State on 7 January 1982, read as follows: Article 4 “1.     Adoption by States Parties of temporary special measures aimed at accelerating de facto equality between men and women shall not be considered discrimination as defined in the present Convention, but shall in no way entail as a consequence the maintenance of unequal or separate standards; these measures shall be discontinued when the objectives of equality of opportunity and treatment have been achieved. 2.     Adoption by States Parties of special measures, including those measures contained in the present Convention, aimed at protecting maternity shall not be considered discriminatory.” Article 5 “States Parties shall take all appropriate measures: (a)     To modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customary and all other practices which are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women; (b)     To ensure that family education includes a proper understanding of maternity as a social function and the recognition of the common responsibility of men and women in the upbringing and development of their children, it being understood that the interest of the children is the primordial consideration in all cases.” Article 11 “1.     States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of employment in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, the same rights, in particular: (a) The right to work as an inalienable right of all human beings; (b)     The right to the same employment opportunities, including the application of the same criteria for selection in matters of employment; (c)     The right to free choice of profession and employment, the right to promotion, job security and all benefits and conditions of service and the right to receive vocational training and retraining, including apprenticeships, advanced vocational training and recurrent training; (d)     The right to equal remuneration, including benefits, and to equal treatment in respect of work of equal value, as well as equality of treatment in the evaluation of the quality of work; (e)     The right to social security, particularly in cases of retirement, unemployment, sickness, invalidity and old age and other incapacity to work, as well as the right to paid leave; (f)     The right to protection of health and to safety in working conditions, including the safeguarding of the function of reproduction. 2.     In order to prevent discrimination against women on the grounds of marriage or maternity and to ensure their effective right to work, States Parties shall take appropriate measures: (a) To prohibit, subject to the imposition of sanctions, dismissal on the grounds of pregnancy or of maternity leave and discrimination in dismissals on the basis of marital status; (b)     To introduce maternity leave with pay or with comparable social benefits without loss o